What are research methods?

Research methods are the strategies,

processes or techniques utilized in the
collection of data or evidence for analysis in
order to uncover new information or create.
better understanding of a topic.

There are different types of research

methods which use different tools for data
collection.
What is the Research design is a plan to answer your
difference research question.
between
Research
Design and
Research
Method?
A research method is a strategy used to
implement that plan. 
What is the
difference
between
Research Research design and methods are
different but closely related, because
Design and good research design ensures that the
Research data you obtain will help you answer
Method? your research question more effectively.
Which research method should I choose?

It depends on your research goal.  It depends on what

subjects (and who) you want to study. 

Let us say you are interested in studying what makes people

happy, or why some students are more conscious about
recycling on campus. 

To answer these questions, you need to make a decision

about how to collect your data. 
 Types of Research

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE MIXED METHOD

Quantitative
Method • Quantitative research deals with numbers
and statistics, while qualitative research
 deals with words and meanings. Each is
associated with a range of research methods
.
Quantitative
Method • Quantitative methods allow you to 
test a hypothesis by systematically collecting
and analyzing data. Common methods
include experiments, observations recorded
as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended
questions.
 • Qualitative methods allow you to
Qualitative explore ideas and experiences in
Method depth.

• Common methods include interviews

with open-ended questions,
observations described in words, and 
literature reviews that explore
concepts and theories.
Qualitative
Method
• Qualitative methods tend to be more
flexible, while quantitative methods
are more reproducible.
Mixed
Method
• In mixed-methods research, you use both 
qualitative and quantitative data collection
and analysis methods to answer your 
research question.
Qualitative Method
 • Qualitative Research gathers data about
lived experiences, emotions or
behaviors, and the meanings individuals
attach to them.
Qualitative
Research
• It assists in enabling researchers to gain
a better understanding of complex
concepts, social interactions or cultural
phenomena.
 • Qualitative Research 

Qualitative This type of research is useful in the

Research exploration of how or why things have
occurred, interpreting events and
describing actions
 • Qualitative research is a process that is
about inquiry.

• It helps create in-depth understanding

Qualitative of problems or issues in their natural
Research settings.

• This is a non-statistical method.

 • Qualitative research is heavily
dependent on the experience of the
researchers and the questions used to
Qualitative probe the sample.
Research
• The sample size is usually restricted to
6-10 people.
 •  Open-ended questions are asked in a
manner that encourages answers that
lead to another question or group of
questions.
Qualitative
Research • The purpose of asking open-ended
questions is to gather as much
information as possible from the
sample.
 • One-to-one interview

• Focus groups
Methods
Used for • Ethnographic research
Qualitative
Research • Content/Text Analysis

• Case study research

 • One-to-one Interview:

This interview is conducted with one

participant at a given point in time.
Types of One-to-one interviews need a
Qualitative researcher to prepare questions in
advance.
Methods
The researcher asks only the most
important questions to the participant.
 • One-to-one Interview:

This type of interview lasts anywhere

Types of between 20 minutes to half an hour.
Qualitative
During this time the researcher
Methods collects as many meaningful answers
as possible from the participants to
draw inferences.
 • Focus Groups:

Focus groups are small groups

Types of comprising of around 6-10 participants
who are usually experts in the subject
Qualitative matter.
Methods
A moderator is assigned to a focus
group who facilitates the discussion
amongst the group members.
 • Focus Groups:

A moderator’s experience in
conducting the focus group plays an
Types of important role.
Qualitative
Methods  An experienced moderator can probe
the participants by asking the correct
questions that will help them collect a
sizable amount of information related
to the research
 • Ethnographic Research:

Ethnographic research is an in-depth

form of research where people are
Types of observed in their natural environment
Qualitative without
Methods
This method is demanding due to the
necessity of a researcher entering a
natural environment of other people.
 • Ethnographic Research:

Geographic locations can be a

Types of constraint as well.
Qualitative
Instead of conducting interviews, a
Methods researcher experiences the normal
setting and daily life of a group of
people.
Quantitative
Research
 • Quantitative research is a structured
way of collecting data and analyzing it
to draw conclusions.

• Unlike qualitative methods, this

Quantitative method uses a computational and
Research statistical process to collect and
analyze data.

• Quantitative data are all about

numbers.
 • Quantitative research involves a larger
population — more people means
more data. With more data to analyze,
you can obtain more accurate results.
Quantitative
Research • This method uses 
close-ended questions because the
researchers are typically looking to
gather statistical data.
 • Online surveys allow survey creators to
reach large amounts of people or
smaller focus groups for different types
of research that meet different goals.
Quantitative
Research • Survey respondents can receive
surveys on mobile phones, in emails,
or can simply use the internet to
access surveys.
 • There are three methods that are often
used by researchers:

• Survey Research — The ultimate goal

Quantitative  of survey research is to learn about a
Research  large population by deploying a survey.
Methods
• Today, online surveys are popular as
they are convenient and can be sent in
an email or made available on the
internet.
 • There are three methods that are often
used by researchers:

• In this method, a researcher designs a

Quantitative  survey with the most relevant 
Research  survey questions and distributes the
survey.
Methods
• Once the researcher receives
responses, they summarize them to
tabulate meaningful findings and data.
 • Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a method which

Quantitative  identifies the characteristics of an observed
phenomenon and collects more information.
Research 
Methods This method is designed to depict the
participants in a very systematic and
accurate manner.
 • Descriptive Research

Quantitative  In simple words, descriptive research

Research  is all about describing the
Methods phenomenon, observing it, and
drawing conclusions from it.
 • Correlational Research

Correlational research examines the

relationship between two or more
Quantitative  variables.

Research  Consider a researcher is studying a

Methods correlation between cancer and married
women.

Married women have a negative

correlation with cancer.
 • Correlational Research

In this example, there are two

variables: cancer and married women.
Quantitative 
Research  When we say negative correlation, it
Methods means women who are married are less
likely to develop cancer.

However, it does not mean that

marriage directly avoids cancer.
 Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

Characteristic Quantitative research Qualitative research

Phenomena are described Phenomena are described in
Type of data Numerically a narrative fashion
Descriptive and inferential Identification of major
Analysis Statistics schemes
Specific questions or
Scope of inquiry Hypotheses Broad, thematic concerns
Large sample, statistical
validity, accurately reflects Rich, in-depth, narrative
Primary advantage the population description of sample
Superficial understanding of Small sample, not
participants’ thoughts and generalizable to the
Primary disadvantage feelings population at large
Mixed
Method
 • This is a common approach and helps
you to 'triangulate’ i.e., to back up one
set of findings from one method of
Mixed data collection underpinned by one
Method methodology, with another very
different method underpinned by
another methodology.
 • For example, you might give out a
questionnaire (normally quantitative)
to gather statistical data about
Mixed responses, and then back this up and
Method research in more depth by interviewing
(normally qualitative) selected
members of your questionnaire
sample.
 • The research methods you use depend on
the type of data you need to answer your 
research question.
Which
 If you want to measure something or 
Research test a hypothesis, use 
Methods to quantitative methods.
Use
 If you want to explore ideas, thoughts
and meanings, use qualitative methods.
  If you want to analyze a large amount
Which of readily-available data, use
secondary data.
Research
Methods to
Use  If you want data specific to your
purposes with control over how it is
generated, collect primary data.
  If you want to establish cause-and-
effect relationships between variables,
Which use experimental methods.
Research
Methods to  If you want to understand the
characteristics of a research subject,
Use use descriptive methods.
 • Methodology refers to the overarching
strategy and rationale of your 
research project.

Methodology
• It involves studying the methods used
in your field and the theories or
principles behind them, in order to
develop an approach that matches
your objectives
 • Methods are the specific tools and
procedures you use to collect and
analyze data (for example,
experiments, surveys, and 
statistical tests).

Methods
• In shorter scientific papers, where the
aim is to report the findings of a
specific study, you might simply
describe what you did in a methods
section.
 • In a longer or more complex research
project, such as a thesis or dissertation,
you will probably include a 
Methods methodology section, where you
explain your approach to answering
the research questions and 
cite relevant sources to support your
choice of methods.
 • Qualitative or quantitative data by
How to itself can’t prove or demonstrate
analyze anything, but has to be analyzed to
show its meaning in relation to the
qualitative research questions.
and
quantitative
data • The method of analysis differs for each
type of data.
 • Quantitative data is based on numbers.

Analyzing • Simple math or more advanced

statistical analysis is used to discover
Quantitative commonalities or patterns in the data.
Data
• The results are often reported in graphs
and tables.
 • Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be
used to calculate things like:
Average scores

Analyzing The number of times a particular answer

Quantitative was given
Data
The correlation or causation between two or
more variables

The reliability and validity of the results

 • Qualitative data is more difficult to
analyze than quantitative data.
Analyzing
Qualitative
Data • It consists of text, images or videos
instead of numbers.
 Some common approaches to analyzing
qualitative data include:

• Qualitative content analysis: Tracking the

Analyzing occurrence, position and meaning of
Qualitative words or phrases
Data
• Thematic analysis: Closely examining the
data to identify the main themes and
patterns

• Discourse analysis: Studying how

communication works in social contexts
A Step-by-
Step Guide
to
Hypothesis
Testing
 • Hypothesis testing is a formal
A Step-by- procedure for investigating our ideas
about the world using statistics.
Step Guide
to
Hypothesis • It is most often used by scientists to
Testing test specific predictions, called
hypotheses, that arise from theories.
 There are 5 main steps in hypothesis
testing:

• State your research hypothesis as a

Steps in null (Ho) and alternate (Ha) hypothesis.
Hypothesis
Testing • Collect data in a way designed to test
the hypothesis.

• Perform an appropriate statistical test.

 There are 5 main steps in hypothesis
testing:

Steps in • Decide whether the null hypothesis is

Hypothesis supported or refuted.
Testing
• Present the findings in your results
 and discussion section.
Step 1: State • After developing your initial research 
hypothesis (the prediction that you
your null and want to investigate), it is important to
alternate restate it as a null (Ho) and alternate
hypothesis (Ha) hypothesis so that you can test it
mathematically.
Step 1: State • The alternate hypothesis is usually
your null and your initial hypothesis that predicts a
relationship between variables.
alternate
hypothesis • The null hypothesis is a prediction of
no relationship between the variables
you are interested in.
 • You want to test whether there is a
Step 1: State relationship between gender and
your null and height.
alternate
• Based on your knowledge of human
hypothesis physiology, you formulate a hypothesis
that men are, on average, taller than
women.
 • To test this hypothesis, you restate it
Step 1: State as:
your null and
alternate Ho: Men are, on average, not taller
hypothesis than women.

Ha: Men are, on average, taller than

women.
 • For a statistical test to be valid, it is
important to perform sampling and
collect data in a way that is designed to
test your hypothesis.
Step 2: Collect
data
• If your data are not representative,
then you cannot make statistical
inferences about the population you
are interested in.
 • To test differences in average height
between men and women, your
Step 2: Collect sample should have an equal
proportion of men and women, and
data cover a variety of socio-economic
classes and any other variables that
might influence average height.
 • You should also consider your scope
(Worldwide? For one country?)

Step 2: Collect • A potential data source in this case

data might be census data, since it includes
data from a variety of regions and social
classes and is available for many
countries around the world.
 • There are a variety of statistical tests
 available, but they are all based on the
Step 3: Perform comparison of within-group
a statistical test variance (how spread out the data is
within a category) versus between-
group variance (how different the
categories are from one another).
 • If the between-group variance is large
enough that there is little or no overlap
Step 3: Perform between groups, then your statistical
test will reflect that by showing a low
a statistical p-value.
test
• This means it is unlikely that the
differences between these groups
came about by chance.
 • Alternatively, if there is high within-group
variance and low between-group
variance, then your statistical test will
Step 3: reflect that with a high p-value.
Perform a
statistical • This means it is likely that any difference
you measure between groups is due to
test chance.

• Your choice of statistical test will be

based on the type of data you collected.
 Based on the type of data you collected,
you perform a one-tailed t-test to test
whether men are in fact taller than women.
Step 3: Perform • This test gives you:
a statistical
an estimate of the difference in average
test height between the two groups.

a p-value showing how likely you are to

see this difference if the null hypothesis of
no difference is true.
Step 4: Decide
whether the • Based on the outcome of your
null hypothesis statistical test, you will have to decide
whether your null hypothesis is
is supported or supported or refuted.
refuted
 • In most cases you will use the p-value
generated by your statistical test to
Step 4: Decide guide your decision.
whether the
null hypothesis • And in most cases, your cutoff for
is supported or refuting the null hypothesis will be
0.05 – that is, when there is a less than
refuted 5% chance that you would see these
results if the null hypothesis were true.
Step 4: Decide • In your analysis of the difference in
average height between men and
whether the women, you find that the p-value of
null hypothesis 0.002 is below your cutoff of 0.05, so
is supported or you decide to reject your null
hypothesis of no difference.
refuted
Step 5: Present • The results of hypothesis testing will be
presented in the results and discussion
your findings sections of your research paper.
 • In the results section you should give a
brief summary of the data and a
summary of the results of your
Step 5: statistical test (for example, the
Present estimated difference between group
your means and associated p-value).
findings
• In the discussion, you can discuss
whether your initial hypothesis was
supported or refuted.
 • In the formal language of hypothesis
testing, we talk about refuting or
Step 5: Present accepting the null hypothesis.
your findings
• You will probably be asked to do this in
your statistics assignments.
 The methodology or methods section explains what
you did and how you did it, allowing readers to
evaluate the reliability and validity of the research.
What is
included in It should include:

your • The type of research you did

methodology?
• How you collected your data

• How you analyzed your data

 It should include:

• Any tools or materials you used in the

What is research
included in
your • Your rationale for choosing these
methods
methodology?
• The methodology section should
generally be written in the past tense.
 • Begin by introducing your overall
Step 1: Explain approach to the research.
your
methodological • What research problem or question did
approach you investigate, and what kind of data
did you need to answer it?
 • Quantitative methods (e.g. surveys)
are best for measuring, ranking,
categorizing, identifying patterns and
Step 1: Explain making generalizations
your
methodological • Qualitative methods (e.g. interviews)
approach are best for describing, interpreting,
contextualizing, and gaining in-depth
insight into specific concepts or
phenomena
Step 1: Explain
your • Mixed methods allow for a
methodological combination of numerical
measurement and in-depth exploration
approach
 • Depending on your discipline and
approach, you might also begin with a
discussion of the rationale and
assumptions underpinning your
Step 1: Explain methodology.
your
methodological • Was your aim to address a practical or
approach a theoretical research problem?

• Why is this the most suitable approach

to answering your research questions?
 • Is this a standard methodology in your
field or does it require justification?
Step 1: Explain
• Were there any ethical or philosophical
your considerations?
methodological
approach • What are the criteria for validity and 
reliability in this type of research?
 • In a quantitative experimental study,
you might aim to produce
generalizable knowledge about the
Step 1: Explain causes of a phenomenon.
your
methodological • Valid research requires a carefully
approach designed study with a 
representative sample and controlled 
variables that can be replicated by
other researchers
 • In a qualitative ethnography, you might
aim to produce contextual real-world
knowledge about the behaviors, social
structures and shared beliefs of a
Step 1: Explain specific group of people.
your
methodological • As this methodology is less controlled
approach and more interpretive, you will need to
reflect on your position as researcher,
taking into account how your
participation and perception might
have influenced the results.
 • Once you have introduced your overall
methodological approach, you should
Step 2: Describe give full details of the 
research methods you used.
your methods
of data
• Outline the tools, procedures and
collection materials you used to gather data, and
the criteria you used to select
participants or sources.
 •  Surveys

Describe where, when and how the 

survey was conducted.
Quantitative
Methods • How did you design the questions and
what form did they take (e.g. multiple
choice, rating scale)?

• What sampling method did you use to

select participants?
 Surveys
• Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail,
online or in person, and how long did
participants have to respond?
Quantitative
Methods • What was the sample size and response
rate?

• You might want to include the full

questionnaire as an appendix so that your
reader can see exactly what data was
collected.
  
Give full details of the tools, techniques
and procedures you used to conduct the
experiment.
Experiments
• How did you design the experiment?

• How did you recruit participants?

 •  How did you manipulate and measure
the variables?

• What tools or technologies did you use

in the experiment?
Experiments
• In experimental research, it is
especially important to give enough
detail for another researcher to
reproduce your results.
 •  Interviews or focus groups

Describe where, when and how the 

Qualitative interviews were conducted.
Methods
• How did you find and select participants?

• How many people took part?

 •  Interviews or focus groups

Qualitative • What form did the interviews take

Methods (structured, semi-structured,
unstructured)?

• How long were the interviews and how

were they recorded?
 •  Participant observation

Describe where, when and how you

Qualitative conducted the observation.
Methods
What group or community did you
observe and how did you gain access
to them?
 •  Participant observation

How long did you spend conducting

Qualitative the research and where was it located?
Methods
How did you record your data (e.g.
audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?
  Existing data

Explain how you selected case study

materials (such as texts or images) for
Qualitative the focus of your analysis.
Methods
• What type of materials did you
analyze?

• How did you collect and select them?

 • Next, you should indicate how you
Step 3: Describe processed and analyzed the data.
your methods
• Avoid going into too much detail—you
of analysis should not start presenting or
discussing any of your results at this
stage
 • Quantitative methods

• In quantitative research, your analysis

will be based on numbers.
Step 3: Describe In the methods section you might
your methods include:
of analysis
• How you prepared the data before
analyzing it (e.g. checking for missing
data, removing outliers, transforming
variables)
 • Quantitative methods

• Which software you used to analyze

Step 3: Describe the data (e.g. SPSS or Stata)
your methods
of analysis • Which statistical methods you used
(e.g. two-tailed t-test, 
simple linear regression)
Qualitative • In qualitative research, your analysis
will be based on language, images and
Methods observations (often involving some
form of textual analysis).
 Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis: categorizing and discussing

the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
Qualitative
Methods • Thematic analysis: coding and closely
examining the data to identify broad themes
and patterns

• Discourse analysis: studying communication

and meaning in relation to their social context
 Example

• The interviews were transcribed and 

thematic analysis was conducted. This
involved coding all the data before
Qualitative identifying and reviewing six key
Methods themes.

• Each theme was examined to gain an

understanding of participants’
perceptions and motivations
 • Your methodology should make the
case for why you chose these
particular methods, especially if you
Step 4: Evaluate did not take the most standard
approach to your topic.
and justify your
methodological • Discuss why other methods were not
choices suitable for your objectives, and show
how this approach contributes new
knowledge or understanding.
Step 4: Evaluate
and justify your • You can acknowledge limitations or
methodological weaknesses in the approach you
chose, but justify why these were
choices outweighed by the strengths.
 • You can acknowledge limitations or
Step 4: Evaluate Lab-based experiments cannot always
and justify your accurately simulate real-life situations
methodological and behaviors, but they are effective
for testing causal relationships
choices between variables.
 • Unstructured interviews usually
Step 4: Evaluate produce results that cannot be
and justify your generalized beyond the sample group,
methodological but they provide a more in-depth
understanding of participants’
choices perceptions, motivations and
emotions.
Data Collection Tools
 Interviews: these can be structured,
Qualitative  semi-structured or unstructured in-
Techniques or depth sessions with the researcher
Tools and a participant.
Qualitative  • Focus groups: with several
Techniques or participants discussing a particular
topic or a set of questions.
Tools Researchers can be facilitators or
observers.
 Observations: On-site, in-context
or role-play options.

Qualitative  Document analysis: Interrogation

of correspondence (letters, diaries,
Techniques or emails etc) or reports.
Tools
Oral history or life stories:
Remembrances or memories of
experiences told to the researcher
 •Surveys or questionnaires: which
Qualitative  ask the same questions to large
Techniques or numbers of participants or
use Likert scales which measure
Tools opinions as numerical data.
 •Observation: which can either
Qualitative  involve counting the number of
Techniques or times a specific phenomenon
Tools occurs, or the coding of
observational data in order to
translate it into numbers.
 • Document screening: sourcing
numerical data from financial
reports or counting word
Qualitative  occurrences.
Techniques or
Tools • Experiments: testing hypotheses
in laboratories, testing cause and
effect relationships, through field
experiments, or via quasi- or
natural experiments.
Q&A
 An introduction to research methods. (2020). Retrieved from

https://www.scibbr.com/category/methodology/
McCombes, S. (2020). How to write a research methodology. Retrieved
from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-
research/
Research Methods Guide: Research Design & Method (2018). Retrieved

from https://guides.lib.vt.edu/researchmethods/design-
References method

Streefkerk, R. (2020). Qualitative vs. quantitative research.

Retrieved from https://bit.ly/2Yw2MRV