INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1
• What is the inorganic Chemistry?
Is the branch of chemistry which
explain the behaviour of elements
and their corresponding compounds.
• The first ever classification put the
elements into two groups.

2
 Cont…………
(i) Periodicity
Periodicity is the occurrence of
particular property of an element at
a regular interval. Arranging the
element in the periodic table in
order

3
 Cont………….
of increasing their atomic number that
properties elements repeat after a definite
interval. All elements which appear in the
same group have the same electronic
configuration and express similar chemical
properties this is an accordance periodic law
which state that
‘’Properties of an elements are periodic
function of their atomic number’’
4
PERIODIC TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PRPERTIES

A: PERIODIC PROPERTIES
important general of the periodic that were discussed
include
(i) Atomic Size/radius
(II) Ionization energy
(iii) Electron affinity
(iv) Electronegavity
(v) Metallic character
vi)Non metallic character
5
 ATOMIC AND IONIC SIZE
(i) ATOMIC SIZE (RADIUS)
Atomic radius is half of the distance between
two adjacent nuclei in pure element or in a
diatonic molecules or is the distance between
the nucleus and outermost shells where
electrons are present.
Diagram

6
 Cont………..
In the periodic table atomic size decrease
progressively across the period from left to
right the decrease of atomic size is due to
progressive increase in nuclear charge results
in increase in effective nuclear attractive pull
over the shells which results to more
attraction of the shells Consider a few element
periodic II

7
 Cont……….
• Diagram

Increase in nuclear charge

i. increase in effective nuclear attractive pull
over shell
8
 Cont……….
ii.Progressive contraction of the shells

Down the group

Atomic size increase down the group two
reasons are given out to account this
observation +
(i) Increase in number of shells
(ii) screening or shielding effect
9
 Cont………..
INCREASING NUMBER OF SHELL
To every step moving down the group crossing
the period, there is an increasing of one extra
shell, this means that atom of elements lower
in a group have more number of shells than
atom of element found above them group,
Consider the first three elements in group
Different shells

10
 Cont………..
SCREENING EFFECT
Screening effect is an effect which result to
expansion of the valency shell due to
obstruction effect on the inner electron which
prevent nuclear attractive pull from reaching
the valence shell effectively this results to the
expansion of the valence shells moves far out
wards away from the rest of inner shells.
Illustration
11
 Cont…………
Diagram

Expansion of the valency shell results of weak

nuclear attractive pull the valency shell receives
due to observation effect of inner electrons

12
 Cont………
Is what known as SCREENING EFFECT

IONIC SIZE AND CATIONIC SIZE

(i) CATIONIC SIZE

Metallic ions have smaller sizethan their
corresponding atoms why? Two reason are given
to explain why mettalic ions have smaller size than

13
 Cont………..
Their corresponding metals
(i) Loss valency shells
(ii) Increase in effective nuclear attractive force
(i) Loss of valency shells
metallic atoms ionize by loosing electrons and
form positive ions, loss of electrons is
accompaired with loss of valency shells so the
resulting positive ions have less number of shells
than in their
14
 Cont………..
Corresponding neutral atoms Consider Sodium
ion and Sodium atom
Diagram

15
 Conts………
(ii) INCREASING IN EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR ATTRACTIVE
FORCE
Another reasons which makes metallic ions be
smaller the increase in effective nuclear attractive
force over remaining fewer electrons while valency
electrons are given off the nuclear charge force at
the core (centre) does not change so upon
redistribution of the nuclear attractive force the
remaining fever electron over all each electrons will
receive stronger effective nuclear
16
 Conts………..
Force than before increase in effective nuclear
attractive force over electrons results to bigger
contraction of the shells and hence reducing
ionic size the shell in cation contract more than
neutral atoms

(ii) ANIONIC SIZE

Non metallic ion on the other hand have large
size than their corresponding neutral gas
17
 Cont…………..
Atoms for example chlorine gaseous atoms (Cl)
why?
Two reasons are given to accounts for this
observation
(i) Repulsion effect
(ii) Decrease in effective nuclear attractive
force

18
 Conts………..
(i) Repulsion Effective
Non metallic atoms ionize by gaining
electrons and form negative ions there is
repulsion between the inner electrons and
the coming electrons which is added to the
valency shell in most cases repulsion force of
the inner electrons is stronger and tend to
outweigh repulsive force of the valevcy

19
 Conts…….
OF the valency electrons. This is cause the
valency electrons shell to expand and increase
size of the resulting ion.

20
 CONT…
DECREASE IN EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR ATTRACTIVE FORCE.
While electrons are added to the valency shell no
corresponding increase in nuclear charge at the
core [centre] remains unchanged upon
redistribution of the nuclear charge over many
electrons, all electrons will receive less effectively
nuclear attractive force than before the decrease in
effective force Over the electrons result to
expansion of shells and hence increase in ionic size.

21
 CONT…

SUMMARY.
Cations always have smaller size than their
corresponding atom.Smaller ionic size of the cations
are caused by loss of valency shell and increase in
effective Nuclear attractive force of the remaining
electron which result to the contractions of the
valency shell.
Anion on the other hand have large size this inner
electrons which result to the expansion of the
valency shell
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 CONT…
• SIZE IN ISOELECTRIC SERIES.
• Isomeric series is a series of species or ions
which have the same number of electrons in
their electronic structure. Isoelectric series is
obtained when atoms ionize either by gaining
or loosing electrons in order to attain
electronic structure of noble gas element.

23
 CONT…
For example ions N3-,O2-,F-,Na+,Mg2+,Al3+ from isoelectric
series. All the atom, have ten electrons in their electronic
structure of neon (Ne).In isoelectric series ionic size
decrease with increase in nuclear charge. Increase in
nuclear charge increase attractive forces over the electrons
that lead to contraction of shells.
Increase in nuclear charge increase attractive force over
the electrons that lead to contraction of shells.There by
reducing ionic size. For example ionic size on the
isoelectric series given above. Follows this
trend.Al3+<Mg2+<Na+<F-<O2-<N3-
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 CONT…
• EFFECT OF ATOMIC SIZE &IONIC SIZE.
• Atomic size and ionic size have greater effect
on the properties of an element and
compound respectively. Most of the physical
and chemical properties exhibited by the
element and compound are determined by
size of their components atoms and ions
respectively.

25
 CONT…
• A:EFFECT OF ATOMIC SIZE
• Atomic size has greater influence on physical
properties of elements like metals. All physical
properties are determined by size of atoms
which makes up the elements.Atomic size
determines the strength of metallic bond in
metals depends on essentially two factors.

26
 CONT…
.>Atomic size.
.>Number of valency electrons.
Strength of metallic bond decrease with
increase in atomic size and with decrease
number of electrons in the valency shell.
Metals which have small atom and which have
greater number of electrons in their valency
shells have strong metallic bond.

27
 CONT…
• Strength of metallic bonds affects properties of
metal.Like hardness,solubility,melting and
boiling point and so on.
• In the periodic table alkaline metal have large
atomic size and have lowest number of valency
electrons.Atoms of alkalines have one valency
electron due to large atomic size and lower
number of electrons in their valency shell
alkaline metal from weak metallic bond.
28
 CONT…
• Weak metallic bonds in alkaline metal account
for why alkaline metals are soft metal with
low melting points and low boiling points and
are highly soluble in water. High solubility of
alkaline metal in water explains why alkaline
metals from aqueous solution which is
stronger base.

29
 CONT…
• Study the melting point of period 3elements given in the table
below
Elements Na Mg Al. Si P S Cl
Atomic 0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.111 0.104 0.099
radius
M.P ˚C 98 657 660 1410 44 114 -101

Explanation
• The trend in melting point from above in appears that the M.P
at first place increase from Na to Si the increase in melting
point can be explained by decrease in atomic size and
increasing number of electrons in the valency shell.

30
 CONT…
• Magnesium has high M.P than Na.Strength of
metallic bonds in Mg is caused b small atomic
size of Mg atom and greater number of valeny
electron. Aluminium has slightly high M.P than
Mg, the slight change in melting points are
explained by equal number of electrons pair
which are involved in metallic bond formation
their valence shell

31
 CONT…
• But like Mg all join together by two bonds and not by
three bonds as explained from the number of their
valency electron. Why? This is because of difficultness
in promotion the valency 35 electron to 3py orbital.
The normal radiant energy absorbed from the sun is
not enough to promote 3s electron to 3py orbital and
providing Alternatively the 3s electron remains as pair
and is involved in the formation of dative bond with
near by atom. The slightly high m.p of Al is attributed
by small atomic size of Al atom but not number of
electrons in valency shell.
32
 CONT…
• Silicon has highest melting point among the
period 3 element the high melting point is
explained by strong giant force existing in
silicon atoms.Silicon atoms join together by
strong giant forces and from giant
molecules,High heat is required to separate
silicon atom from giant molecules.

33
 CONT…
• Phosphorus,sulphur and chlorine are non-
metal and exist in molecular form.The force
existing between the molecule are weaker
vander waal forces,however sulphur have high
melting point than phosphorus due to large
molecular mass of sulphur molecule
compared to that of phosphorous
molecule,sulphur molecule consists of eight
atom.

34
 CONT…
• But phosphorus consist of four atoms P

35
 CONT…
• Strength of vander waal force increase with
increase molecular mass.Sulphur has large
molecular mass than phosphorus molecule and
hence the vander waal force are stronger in
sulphur than in between p molecule. Chlorine has
lowest M.P this is because chlorine exist in
diatomic form Cl2 and has lowest molecular
mass.The Vander waal force are weakest and the
molecule is widely separated away from each
other.
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 CONT…
• B:EFFECT ON IONIC SIZE.
• Ionic size have greater effect on properties of
the compound properties exihibited by ionic
compound depend very much on size of the
component ions which make up the
compounds.Below are such of the influence of
ionic size.

37
 CONT…
• >POLARISATION AND POLARISABILITY OF
COMPOUNDS
• Polarization is the deformation or distortion of
the valency shells.Distortion of the valency is
caused by deference in size of combining
ions.When combining ions have difference
ionic size the valency,shell of the large ion
becomes distorted and it change to oval shape.

38
 CONT…

Polarized compound

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 CONT…
• A compound which has ions with deformed
valency shell is said to polarised compound.
• On the other hand compound which have ions
with undepolarised valency shell are said to be
undepolarised compound ions have equal ionic
size. Ability of ions to deform valency shell of
other combining ions is called polarizing
power. Polarizing power of ions depends on
essentially two factors
40
 CONT…
• ‘’ionic size and ionic charge.On the other hand
the extent or easily with which the valency
shell of an ion is deformed is called
POLARISABILITY
• Polarisability on ions increase with increase
ionic size.Large ions are polarized more readily
than smaller ions.In most case cations are
smaller than anions.

41
 CONT…
• Hence it the cations which tend to deform the
valency shell of anions.
• Polarization of a compound determines
stability of compound to heat.Polarized
compounds thermally are unstable.They
decompose readily when heated on the other
hand undepolarised compounds are thermally
stable to heat, they don’t decompose on
heating.
42
 CONT…
• In the periodic table alkali metal form large
metallic ions which have lowest polarizing
power.Most of compound of alkali metal
remain undepolarised and hence are stable to
heat but compound of lithium are exception.

43
 PACKING OF MOLECULES IN A CRYSTALS

Ionic size also affect packing of the molecules or units in

crystal salts.
Packing of the molecules is good and more effective if the
combining ion have almost equal ionic size. Packing of
molecules in a crystal is more effective and only small
interstials empty space are left in between the molecules.
On the other hand if the combining ion or atom have
different ionic size, packing of molecules in the crystals
become poor and large empty spaces are left in btn
molecules.

44
45
 CONT…
SUMMARY:
The diagram above there is a small empty interstial
space.
The arrangement occur in compound in which the
component ion (atom) have equal ionic size, packing of
molecule is more effective small enterstial spaces left in
between the molecules.
The compound are associated with high melting point,
high density, and are insoluble in water.(sparingly soluble.

46
 Cont….
Packing of molecules in crystal have greater effect
on physical properties of an ions or electrovalent
compound like melting point, boiling point,
density and stability in polar solvent water.
Compound whose almost have equal ionic size
have good packing of their molecules crystals are
associated with high melting point, they have
high density and are sparing soluble in water.

47
 Cont….

On the other hand compound in

which the component ion have
different ionic size have poor packing
of their

48
But

49
 Cont….
The compound above have large empty enterstial
spaces, it is expected to have different ionic size.
Thus in this compound the packing of the molecules
in the crystal is poor, and the large empty enterstial
spaces remain between the molecules.
The compounds are associated with low m.p and
low B.p and have low density.
Normally the compound are highly soluble in water.

50
 Cont….
Molecules are associated with low
melting point and boiling point. The
compound have low density and
normally are highly soluble in water.

51
 Cont….
NECTA 1996: Study the figure below then answer
the questions.
Compound LiCl NaCl KCl RbCl CsCl

M.P° C 462 988 750 711 614

. Account for the trend of melting

point for the compound above

52
 Cont….
NECTA .
An examination of Halide of Calcium shows a
decreases in the Melting point.

Halide CaF2 CaCl2 CaBr2 CaI2

M.P°C 1360 772 730 575

Account of the trend of the melting point for the

Halide given in the table.

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 CONT…
• HYDRATION OF IONS AND COMPOUND.
• Ionic size determines the extent to which
the ions and compound may be hydrated
in aqueous solutions.
The extent of hydration of ions in aqueous
solution increase with decrease in ionic
size and increase ionic charge, small ions
and which have high charge are heavily
54
 CONT…….
hydrated in aqueous. Small ions associated with
high charge exert a stronger electrostatics
attractive pull to water than longer ions and which
have low charge. Hydration of ions effect mobility
or speed of the ions in aqueous solution which
turn affects conductivity of solution. Mobility of
ions in aqueous solution depends on weight of
ions. Hydration makes ions heavier. Hydrated ions
have low mobility in aqueous solution.

55
 CONT…
Hydration of ions account for the observation
that lithium ions (Li+) which is smallest metal
among alkali metal have lowest mobility in
aqueous solution than caesium(Cs) which is
largest (heaviest) ions has high speed or
mobility, Li+ ions has lowest speed due to its
small of its cation.

56
 CONT………
Ions is heavily hydrated and caesium(Cs) ions
has highest speed because is least hydrated
due to its large cation size.
Ionic sizes also determine the extent of
hydration. In ionic compound salt. Salts which
comprise of small cation are highly
deliquescent. Hence must be stored under dry
condition.

57
 CONT….
IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization energy is the energy which is
required to remove an electron
completely from a gaseous atom or ions
and form a gaseous ion.
The magnitude of ionization energy which
must be supplied in order to remove
electrons depend on atomic/ionic size.
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 CONT….
Ionization energy increase with atomic size, the
valency electrons in small atoms is strongly held by
nuclear attractive force (pull). Some atomise ionize
by loosing more than one electrons and forms poly
ions eg. Ca, Al etc. The many electron are not
rejected at once but in stage that in the first most
loosely electrons in an atom in given off first followed
by second electron.

59
 CONT….
The energy which required to remove first
electrons from an atoms is called first ionization
energy. The energy required to remove second
electron is called second ionization energy.etc
For the atom which ionizes by loosing more than
one electron, Ionization increase consecutively.
That is for particular atoms second ionization
energy is greater than first ionization energy

60
 CONT….
QUESTIONS
Why does ionization energy of an atom increase
consecutively?

ANSWER
Ionization increase consecutively because of
increasing effective nuclear attractive pull over
the remaining electron after removal of some
electron
61
 CONT….
NOTE
In periodic table ionization energy decrease
progressively as moving downward the group. This is
because of increase of atomic size as descending the
groups.
Across the period ionization energy increase from left
to right of the periodic table. The increase of
ionization energy is caused by decrease of atomic size

62
 CONT….
FACTOR AFFECTING THE IONISATION ENTHALPY/ENERGY
The magnitude of the ionization enthalpy of an
element depend upon the following factor
(i) size of the atom or ions
The ionization enthalpy depend upon the columbic
force of attraction between the nucleus and the
electrons. This columbic force of attraction decrease
when the distance between the nucleus and
electrons increase

63
 CONTS….
(ii) Nuclear charge
The strength of attractive force between the
nucleus and the electrons depend upon the
charge in the nucleus. Greater the effective
nuclear charge, greater is electro statistics
force of attraction between the nucleus and
the electron. This makes the removal of an
electrons from the atom more difficult
64
 CONTS…..
As the results, ionisation enthalpy increase with an
increase in the effective nuclear charge.
(iii) Electronic arrangement.
Half-filled and completely –filled orbital's are found
to be more stable.
There fore, the ionisation enthalpy is higher when an
electron is to be removed from a fully-filled or half-
filled –orbital.

65
 CONTS….
(a) Noble gases have highest ionisation
enthalpies. In their respective period because it
is difficult to remove an electron from a highly
stable fully-filled orbital (ns2 np6)
(b) Oxygen has lower ionisation enthalpy than
nitrogen.
The electronic configuration of oxygen and
nitrogen are
N = 1s2 2s2 2p1x 2py1 2p1z
66
 CONTS….
O = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2p1y 2pz1
Although, nitrogen has one unit less
positive charge in its nucleus than
oxygen, but due to the extra-stability of
the half-filled orbital it is difficulty to
remove an electron from N atom. There
fore, the first ionization enthalpy of
nitrogen
67
 Cont…
iv)Screening effect. In multielectron atoms, the
inner electrons act as screen btn the outer
electron and the nucleus. As a result of this,
the outermost electrons experience lesser
attractive force of the nucleus thus the inner
electrons shield/screen the outermost
electrons from the attractive pull of the
nucleus. Greater the screening(shielding)

68
 Cont….
effect, easier it is to remove the outer
electrons from an atom, and hence lower
is the ionization enthalpy.
Larger the number of inner electrons,
greater is the screening
effect,therefore,lower is the ionisation
enthalpy.

69
 Cont…
v)Penetration effect of the electrons.In
multielectron atoms,the probability of finding
an electron near the nucleus follows the order,
s –Electrons>p –Electrons>d-electrons>f-
electrons
so,the s-electrons are more penetrating than
p-electrons towards the nucleus and p-
electrons are more penetrating

70
 Cont...
than d-electrons and so on. thus, the s-
electrons are more firmly bound to the nucleus,
than p-electron and so on. As a result, the
ionization enthalpy follows the order,
s-electrons>p-electrons>d-electrons>f-
electrons.
Thus, for the same principle quantum number
(or the same shell),the ionisation

71
 Cont….
X. The ∆egH may be positive or negative ( like
electron affinity).
Enthalpy of a s-electron is higher than that of
a p-electron,and the ionisation energy of a p-
electron is higher than that of a d-electron
and so on.

72
 Cont….
ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY(EARLIER CALLED ELECTRON
AFFINITY).
It has been recommended to replace the term Electron
Affinity (Eea) by a new term Electron Gain enthalpy(∆egH).
The electron gain enthalpy is the molar enthalpy change
when an isolated gaseous atom (or anion)in its ground state
adds an an electron to form the corresponding anion.
thus, The enthalpy change for the reaction,
X(g ) + ē X-(g)
is called the electron gain enthalpy(ΔegH) of the element

73
 Cont….
• The electron gain electron gain
enthalpy values are expressed in the
units of Kj/mol ,or in the unit

74
 Cont…
Of Ev.
For elements whose atoms have strong
tendency to accept an electron, energy is
released during the formation of anion
and,therefore,the electron gain enthalpy
values are negative. for example, in the
reaction,
Cl(g) + ē CL-(g) + 340Kjmol-1

75
 Cont….
energy equivalent to 340Kjmol-1 is released.
therefore ,the electron gain enthalpy of
Chlorine is -340KJmol-1.
Note, the succesive electron gain enthalpies
may be positive or negative .for example, for
the reactions,
O(g) + ē O-(g) + 141Kjmol-1 ∆egH1 = -141Kjmol-1

O-(g) + ē O2-(g) - 780Kjmol-1 ΔegH2 = +780Kjmol-1

76
 cont,….
FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRON GAIN
ENTHALPY./ELECTRON AFFINITY.
The electron gain enthalpy of an element
depends upon the following Factors;
i) Atomic size.
Smaller the atom, greater is the magnitude of
the electron gain enthalpy.this is because,the
added electron

77
 Cont’…..
Can go closer to the nucleus, as a result
release more energy.
ii)Effective nuclear charge.
Greater the nuclear charge,large is the
magnitude of the electron gain enthalpy.This is
because the electron would experience
stronger attraction by virtue of higher nuclear
charge.

78
 Cont….
iii)Electronic configuration of the atom.
An atom with stable electronic configuration has a little, or no
tendency to add another electron. As a result, such elements
have zero, or nearly zero electron gain enthalpy.
note;an atom is said to have a stable configuration,if;
a)All the orbital's are completely filled.
b)all the orbital's of a particular energy level are half-filled.
c)the atom has a noble gas configuration,i.e there is eight
electrons in its outermost energy level. It is because of the
factors C.that the noble gas elements have zero electron
affinity

79
 Cont….
Note, Periodic Trends or variation of Electron Gain
Enthalpy.
The magnitude of the electron gain enthalpy affinity of
elements decreases in going from top to bottom in a
group, as a result the tendency to accept an electron in
its valence shell and hence the magnitude of electron
gain enthalpy decreases as we go down the group, BUT
the magnitude of electron gain enthalpy increases across
a period in going from left to right, this is because the size
of the atoms decreases due to increases in nuclear charge
which cause effective nuclear charge increases.
80
 Cont….
• Both these factors increase the force of attraction
exerted by the nucleus on the electrons.As a result,
the atom has a greater tendency to gain an extra
electronFrom outside and,therefore, the magnitude
of electron gain enthalpy increases in going from
left to right.However,electron gain enthalpy of
fluorine is lower than that of Chlorine.this is
because F has smaller size which repels the added
electron more strongly than the larger chlorine
atom.
81
 Cont…
Example;
element Mg Ar Si P
electron enthalpyKjmol-1 +63 +29 -90 -78
From the electron affinity energy values in
table answer the following question

i}why the affinity energy values of Mg and

Ar are positive {endothermic} unlike those of
82
 Cont…..
The other periodic three members?
ii)why the electron affinity value of P is less exothermic
than that of Si despite being close to group VII elements
which have most exothermic values of electrons?
ANSWER
i)Electron affinity of Mg and Ar have positive
value( endothermic) as they posses a stable electronic
configuration by having duplet and octet state thus
addingelectrons is against their stability therefore highly
energy must be supplied to break the stable configuration
before adding; also Mg is electropositive hence hardly
accept electrons. 83
 Cont………
ii)P has less exothermic electron affinity than Si
as P has stable configuration by having half
filled d-orbital thus it does not gain electron
easily, however gain of electron in Si is
towards stability thus it losses a lot of energy
to become stable.

84
DIFFERENT SCIENTIST ON PERIODIC TABLE

There are some scientific who explain

well the periodic table,
i)DOBEREINERS
TRIADS(triads)(1829 German)
iiNEWLANDS LAW OF OCTAVES(1864)
iii)LOTHAR MEYER ATOMIC VOLUME
CURVE(1869 German)

85
 1.DOBEREINERS TRIADS
• In 1829, a German scientist, John Dobereiner classified certain
elements in the groups of three, called triads. The three
elements in a triad had similar chemical properties.
When the elements in a triad were arranged in the order of
increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle
element was found to be approximately equal to the arithmetic
mean of the other two elements. It was also found that the
middle member of any triad had physical properties that were
nearly the average of the other two .Some of the Dobereiners
triads are given below;

86
 Cont…
LIMITATIONS OF DOBEREINER
CLASSIFICATION
• The Dobereiner method of
classification could arrange only a
limited number of elements out of
those known at that time in the form
of triads. Therefore, the idea of triad
87
 Properties of elements in some triads
Triads Atomic Mean Density, mean Melting mean
mass g/cm3 point,K
Li 6.94 23.02 0.53 453
Na 22.99 0.67 0.69 371 394
K 39.10 0.86 336

Ca 40.08 1.54 1118

Sr 87.62 87.21 2.60 2.64 1030 1050
Ba 134.34 3.74 983
S 32.06 2.06 392
Se 78.96 79.83 4.82 4.15 493 557
Te 127.60 6.25 723
Fe 55.85 7.86 1812
Co 58.93 57.28 8.33 8.38 1768 1770
Ni 58.71 8.90 728

88
 Cont…
Could not be applied to all the elements then
known.
Examples
Predict the density of Sr, Y Cs from the following
density of the elements

K 0.86g/cm3
Rb 1.532g/cm3
Cs ?
89
 Cont….
Ca 1.548g/cm3 Sc 2.991g/cm3
Sr 2.68g/cm3 Y 4.34g/cm3
Ba 3.51g/cm3 La 6.16g/cm3.
Following the observation made by Dobereiner
(1829) that the properties of any element are
nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of the
elements on either side of it in the group, we
estimated the densities of the middle elements
for the two groups.
90
 Cont...
Thus,
Density of Sr =
sumof thedensitiesof ScandBa 1.548
  3.51g / cm3  2.53g / cm3
2 2

91
Again density of Y =,

2.991  6.16
g / cm3  4.57 g/cm3.
2

92
 Cont…
The estimated densities for Sr and Y
are nearly equal to their actual
densities, This thus proves that this
principle can be used for estimating
the density of Cs.

93
 Cont…
If the density of Cs is d g/cm3 ,then
Density of K  Density of Cs
,
2
Density of Rb= 0.86  d
1.532 g / cm3 g / cm3
2
d of Cs  (2x1.532) - 0.86g/cm3  2.20g/cm3,
thus the actual density of Cs is 1.9g/cm3

94
 CONT….

2.NEWLANDS LAW OF OCTAVES.

In 1864,John Newlands, an English chemist and a
musician, arranged the element known at that time
in the order of their increasing atomic masses.
He observed that, the ‘’the properties of each
element resembled those of the the eighth element
before it, and of the eighth element following it’’.In
the other words, he found that ‘’the properties of
the elements were repeated at every eighth
element like

95
 CONT….
like the eighth note of an octaves in
music’’.
First and eighth notes are identical

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Nee Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

96
 CONT….
I II III IV V VI VII
H Li Be B C N O
(1) (7) (9) (11) (12) (14) (16)
F Na Mg Al Si P S
(19) (23) (24) (27) (28) (31) (32)
Cl K Ca
(35.5) (39) (40)

97
Newlands called this as the LAW OF
OCTAVES.A few octaves based on the
Newlands classification are shown
below. the number in parentheses
are atomic masses.
Thus, the properties of Na, K , are

98
 CONT….
Similar to those of Li.Similarly Cl
resembles F.
The Newlands classification was
the greatest discovery that had been
made up to that time. This
classification related the properties

99
 CONT….
of the elements to their atomic
masses for the first time. It was
shown for the first time that there is
a periodicity in the properties of the
element.

100
 CONT…..
DRAWBACKS IN THE NEWLANDS
CLASSIFICATION
New lands classification suffered from
the following drawbacks
1.Newlands classification failed badly
while dealing with the heavier
elements beyond calcium (ca)
101
 CONT….
2.When the noble gases were discovered; the
idea of octaves could not be held for example
with the discovery of neon (Ne) between F
and Na and argon (Ar) between Cl and K it
becomes ninth element and not the eighth
which has similar properties.

102
LOTHAR MEYERS ATOMIC VOLUME CURVE

In 1869 a German chemist Julius

Lothar Meyer plotted a graph of atomic
volume (atomic mass/density) versus
atomic mass for various elements. He
noticed that the elements with similar
properties occupied similar position on
the curve as shown below

103
 CONT….
For examples alkali metals (Li, Na, K,
Rb, Cs etc) occupied the peak
positions.Lothar Meyer observed a
periodicity in the properties of the
elements with atomic mass

104
 Rb
K
Atomic V Na
Ml/mol.

Atomic mass/u

105
 CONT….
Thus Lothar Meyer classification for
the first time confirmed a definite
pattern and periodicity in the
properties of ther element

106
 Cont….
iv)MENDELEEVS CLASSIFICATION (1839-1907)

Note,
Modern Periodic Law.
In 1913,H.G.J. Moseley in
England, found that when an element
is bombarded with electrons in vaccum,
107
 Cont…
X-rays are produced. It was found that the
wavelength of X-rays is related to the Atomic
number of the element.

ANOMALIES IN MENDELEEVS
CLASSIFICATION VS MODERN P LAW
i)inversion in the Mendeleev's p table.
ii)position of isotopes
108
 Cont….
Metals and non-metals, the metal and
non-metals classification was followed by
attempts to classify elements by
arranging them in the order of increasing
atomic mass.
Elements in the periodic table was
arranged by the different scientists

109
 CONT….
one among them was Mendeleev’s. The
Mendeleev’s periodic table became the
basis of study as we divide the elements
according to their groups and then study
them. These groups are regrouped as S-
block, p-block,d-bock and f-block
elements

110
In 1869 Mendeleev’s observed that if
elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic masses, similar elements appeared at
regular intervals or periods. This leads to the
formation of Mendeleev's periodic law which
states that “The properties of elements are
periodic function of their atomic masses”

111
 CONT….
Mendeleev arranged the known elements
according to increasing order of their atomic
masses. According to him, fundamental
property of an elements was atomic mass. He
arranged these elements in eight groups.
They were further divided into sub groups.
Mendeleev periodic table was very precise
provided the basis of modern periodic
classification.
112
 CONT….
Advantages of Mendeleev periodic table
1. There was a regular gradation in the physical
and chemical properties of elements
2. The group number of an element indicates
highest oxidation state that it can attain.
3. There were many vacant spaces in table for
the elements to be discovered.
4. Mendeleev’s arrangement helped to correct
113
 CONT….
atomic masses of elements.
5. The table summarized the larger information
about the elements. Chemically similar
elements appeared in one group.

114
 CONT….
Weaknesses in Mendeleev's periodic table
1. For placing the elements in proper groups,
the order of the elements according to their
atomic masses was reversed in certain cases.
He placed Iodine (127) after Tellurium (128)
Potassium (39) and Nickel (58) after Cobalt
(59). Which is against his periodic law but
correct according to properties.

115
 CONT….
2. Mendeleev’s periodic table does not provide
clear idea about the structure of atom.
3. Lanthanide and actinide have been assigned
placed in the periodic table which is against
the periodic law.
4. Alkali metal and coinage metals (Cu, Ag, and
Au) which differ widely in properties are
placed into the same group

116
 CONT….
5. There was no separate position for isotopes
in his periodic table.

Applications of periodic table

Arrangementof elements in the form of periodic
table is very useful for the proper study of
elements. Some important applications of
periodic table are as follows;

117
 CONT….
1. Classification of elements into periods and
groups is very useful and easy in the study of
chemistry.
2. Suggestions for further research become
available
3. Prediction of new elements is possible.

118
 Cont……………..
Deffects of mendeleff’s periodic table
Discover of isotopes lead of confusion in placing
the element in the periodic table eg.14C and 14N
are contradictory to be placed in accordance to
their masses
The modern Long form of the periodic table
The Morden of the periodic table was established
by mosely, in Morden periodic table element are
placed in order of increasing their atomic number
119
 Cont…………
There are two factor which made elements placed in periodic
table in order of increasing atomic number such as factor
included
(i) Atomic structure
(ii) Periodicity

(i) Atomic Structure

By arranging element in order of inceasing Atomic number has
made all element which have the same structure to appear in
the same group. As atomic number increase there is a
tendency of electronic structure of the element to repeat at
very certain definite interval.

120