Digital vs.

Analog Communication
• Advantages:
– Increased immunity to channel noise and external
interference
– Flexible operation of the system
– A common format for the transmission of different
kinds of signals. e.g. voice, video, data
– Improved security of communication through the
use of encryption
– Error detection and correction is possible
 Digital vs. Analog Communication
• Disadvantages:
– Increased transmission channel bandwidth
• Solution  Satellite, optical fiber
– Increased system complexity
• Solution  VLSI, ULSI
• Note:
– Although there is no noise & interference on
channel the transmitted signal received at the
receiver will not be same due to the channel
imperfection & non linearity of the channel.
Resources in Communication System
• Channel Bandwidth
• Average transmitter power
Shannon’s Channel Capacity Theorem
C = B log2(1 + SNR) bits/sec
Where,
B = Channel Bandwidth
C = Channel Capacity

Channel Capacity  maximum rate at which the

information may be transmitted without error
through the channel
 Basic Communication Elements

m(t) Signal Carrier s(t) Transmissio r(t) Signal Carrier m (t )

Processing Circuit n Media Processing Circuit
Transmitter Receiver
Noise
 Super Heterodyne Type AM Receiver

RF carrier range = 535KHz to 1605KHz

Mid Band Frequency of IF Section = 455 KHz
If Bandwidth = 10KHz
Tuning range of Local Oscillator = 80KHz to 1150KHz and 990KHz to 2105KHz
 Reception of double signal  Image frequency  Selective state required
between RF Section and Mixer
fIF = fRF – fLO
 Super Heterodyne Type FM Receiver

Limiter Discriminator

Loudspeaker

Audio De-emphasis
Amplifier network

RF carrier range = 88MHz to 108MHz (VHF Band)

Mid Band Frequency of IF Section = 10.7 MHz
If Bandwidth = 200KHz
De-emphasis is used to compensate the pre-emphasis network at transmitter
side
Pre-emphasis is used to improve SNR
 Modulation
• Modulation is the process by which some
parameter of carrier signal is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal (message
signal)
– Carrier Signal: Band pass signal
– Modulating Signal: Base band signal
 Types of Modulation
• Analog Modulation (AM)
• Angle Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
• Digital Modulation (Base band Modulation)
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• The amplitude of carrier signal is varied
linearly with modulating signal.
• Standard Form:
s(t) = Ac [1 + kam(t)]cos2πfct
ka : Amplitude sensitivity of modulator
• Envelope:
a(t) = Ac [1 + kam(t)]
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Case 1:
|kam(t)|≤ 1;
Percentage Modulation = |kam(t)|*100%
= less or equal to 100%
• Case 2:
|kam(t)|> 1; Percentage Modulation > 100%
– Receiver complexity increases
– Phase reversal; envelope distortion
– Over modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
(a) Intelligence or
modulating signal

(b) Lower sideband

(c) Carrier signal

(d) Upper sideband

(e) Composite AM wave

Frequency Domain AM Signal
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Transmission Bandwidth: 2fm
• Transmitted Power: Pcarrier + PUSB + PLSB
• Pcarrier: ½ Ac2
1
• PUSB: 8 μ2Ac2
1
• PLSB: 8 μ2Ac2
• Modulation Factor, μ = kaAm
  vmax
 vmin
v max
 vmin
 Generation of AM
• Square Law Modulator
• Switching Modulator
 Square Law Modulator

Unwanted signal are removed by tuned band pass

filter of Mid Band Frequency = fc
Bandwidth = 2fm
f > 3f
 Switching Modulator

Unwanted signal are removed by tuned band pass

filter of Mid Band Frequency = fc
Bandwidth = 2fm
f > 2f
 Detection/Demodulation of AM
• Square Law detector
• Envelope Detector
 Square Law Detector

After LPF, wanted component can be detected

 Envelope Detector

RsC << 1/fc ; charging time should be less compared

to carrier time.
1/fc << RLC << 1/w ; discharging time constant is
larger than charging time constant
 DSB-SC
• Time domain
s(t) = c(t).m(t) = Accos(2πfct).m(t)
• Modulated signal undergoes a phase reversal
whenever the message signal crosses zero.
(due to absence of carrier signal on modulated
wave)
½ AcM(0)
 DSB-SC Generation
• Balanced Modulator
• Ring Modulator/Lattice or Double Balanced
Modulator
Balanced Modulator
 Balanced Modulator
• s1(t) = Ac [1 + kam(t)]cos2πfct
• s2(t) = Ac [1 - kam(t)]cos2πfct
• s(t) = s1(t) - s2(t)
= 2kaAcm(t)cos2πfct
 Ring Modulator

Required term can be filtered out by using BPF of

Mid Band Frequency = fc
Bandwidth = 2fm
f >f
 Detection of DSB-SC
• Coherent Detection/Synchronous detection
• Costas Loop
 Coherent Detection of DSB-SC

s(t) = m(t) cos2πfct

Product Low Pass
Modulator Filter
Vo(t)= ½ cos(ɸ).m(t)

s(t) = m(t) cos(2πfct + ɸ)

Local
Oscillator

• After LPF,
Vo(t)= ½ cos(ɸ).m(t)
• When ɸ = 900; Vo(t)= 0  Quadrature Null effect
 Costas Loop
I - Channel

Product Low Pass ½ cos(ɸ).m(t)

Modulator Filter

cos(2πfct + ɸ)
Phase
VCO
s(t) = Discriminator
Acm(t) cos2πfct
-900 Phase
Shifter

sin(2πfct + ɸ)

Product Low Pass

Modulator Filter
½ sin(ɸ).m(t)
Q - Channel
Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing (QAM)

• Bandwidth conservation scheme

• Enables two DSB-SC modulated wave to
occupy the same transmission bandwidth
• To maintain the synchronization QAM sends a
pilot signal out side the pass band.
 QAM Transmitter

Product Low Pass +

m1(t) Modulator Filter ∑
Multiplexed
Accos2πfct + signal

Local
Oscillator

-900 Phase
Shifter

Acsin2πfct

Product
m2(t) Modulator
 QAM Receiver

Product Low Pass

Modulator Filter m1(t)

Accos2πfct
Local
s(t) Oscillator

-900 Phase
Shifter

Acsin2πfct

Product Low Pass

Modulator m2(t)
Filter
NT Old Questions and Answer
1. In a certain modulation system, the
demodulation index is halved when the
modulating frequency is doubled keeping the
modulating voltage the same. The modulation
system is
a. AM
b. FM
c. PM
d. PWM
Ans: b
2. The line coding technique used in E1 digital
stream is
a. AMI [DS1, E1]
b. NRZ
c. HDB3 [E1]
d. CMI
Ans: c
B8ZS [DS1/T1]
Polar Biphase:Manchester and Diff. Manchester
[802.3 Ethernet LAN, 802.5 Token Ring LAN]
3. If sampling time is less than the Nyquist
Interval, then:
a. Bandwidth increases
b. Channel Capacity Increases
c. Guard Time Reduces
d. Simpler filters may be used to obtain the
original signal
Ans: c (check)
4. FM broadcast band lies in
a. VHF band [30-300MHz]
b. UHF band [300-3000MHz]
c. SHF band [3-30GHz]
d. HF Band [3-30MHz]
Ans: a
5. The number of voice frequency channels in E1
PCM line is
a. 16
b. 24 [T1]
c. 30 [E1]
d. 64
Ans: c
6. The transmission rate of STM 1 in optical fiber is:
a. 155.52 Mb/s
b. 2.048 Mb/s [E1]
c. 140 Mb/s [PDH; E1 Hierarchy, E4 = 139.264 Mb/s]
d. 1.54 Mb/s [T1]
Ans: a
STM-4: 622 Mb/s
STM-16: 2.4 Gb/s
E3: 34 Mb/s
7. Total voice chnnels avaiable in one PCM link of
E1 standard:
a. 24 channels [T1]
b. 22 channels
c. 30 channels [E1]
d. 32 channels [E1; total channles]
Ans: c
8.Line Coding technique used in 34 Mb/s digital
stream is:
a. PSK
b. AMI
c. CMI
d. HDB3 [E1; E3 = 34 Mb/s]
Ans: d
9. Which of the following modulation techniques
has low out-of band spurious radiation?
a. QAM
b. PSK
c. FSK
d. MSK
Ans: d
GMSK

GMSK has a main lobe 1.5 times that of QPSK

GMSK<MSK<QPSK

Theoretical Bandwidth efficiency limits

MSK 1 bit/second/Hz
BPSK 1 bit/second/Hz
QPSK 2 bits/second/Hz
8PSK 3 bits/second/Hz
16 QAM 4 bits/second/Hz
32 QAM 5 bits/second/Hz
64 QAM 6 bits/second/Hz
256 QAM 8 bits/second/Hz
OFDM >10 (depends on the type of modulation and the no. of subcarriers)
GMSK 1.35
FSK <1 (depends on modulation index)
10. Which modulation technique occupies least
spectral bandwidth?
a. QPSK
b. BPSK
c. 16QAM
d. 64QAM
Ans: d
11. A band limited signal of fm Hz can be
represented without losing any information by
its samples uniformly separated at or less than
a. 2fm sec
b. 1/2fm sec [fs=2fm]
c. 2/fm sec
d. fm/2 sec
Ans: b
12. Which of the following digital modulation
system is more resistant to the noise?
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK
d. All of above
Ans: c
PSK>FSK>ASK
13. Which one of the following helps to reduce
the qunatizing noise in Pulse Code Modulatioin?
a. Higher Sampling Rate
b. Lower Sampling Rate
c. Higher number of quantizing levels
d. Lower number of qunatizing levels
Ans: c
14. STM-1 module of an synchronous digital
hierarchy has a transmission rate of
a. 34 kb/s
b. 65 Mb/s
c. 144 kb/s [B-ISDN]
d. 155 Mb/s
Ans: d
15. Digital paths betwen countries, which have
adapted different encoding laws, carry signals
encoded in accordance with
a. A law
b. u law (meu law)
c. Both A and u law
d. None of above
Ans: c
16. Essential use of PLL technique is marked with
feature:
a. Frequency stability
b. Amplification
c. Carrier generation
d. All of these
Ans: a
17. Quantizing is the process of converting a
continuous signal to one that is discrete in
a. Amplitude
b. Wavelength
c. Phase
d. None
Ans: a
18. Sampling theorem states that (where
fs=sampling frequency)
a. fs=2f
b. fs=4f
c. fs=6f
d. None
Ans: a
19. A modulation is a system to
a. separete two frequencies
b. impress the information on to a radio frequency
carrier
c. extract informationfrom the carrier
d. amplify the audio frequency signal
Ans: b
20. The number of E1 in STM-1 audio equipment
is
a. 33
b. 43
c. 63
d. 73
Ans: c
21. If the bandwidth of double side band
suppressed carrier AM signal is 30 KHz, the
maximum frequency of the modulating signal is
limited to
a. 10 KHz
b. 15 KHz
c. 30 KHz
d. 60 KHz
Ans: b
BW of DSB-SC = 2w
22. Modulation is the process of
a. reducing distortion in RF amplifiers
b. improving thermal stability
c. generating constant-frequency radio waves
d. combining audio and radio-frequency waves at
the transmitting end of a communication system
Ans: d
23. In 2.048 Mbps transmission frame one time
slot is
a. 34 Kbps
b. 64 Kbps
c. 74 Kbps
d. None of above
Ans: b
24. Phase modulation is commonly used for data
transmission mainly because
a. phase can be varied from +180 to -180 degree
b. demodulation is very easy
c. it is resistant to the effects of noise
d. it gies highest date rates that can be
transmitted over a given channel
Ans: c
25. De-modulation is a process whereby
a. a signal is received from the system
b. a carrier is received from the sytem
c. an intelligence is recovered from the carrier
d. an intelligence is impressed on the carrier
Ans: c
26. The VHF band is
a. 0.3 - 3 MHz
b. 3 - 30 MHz
c. 30 - 300 MHz
d. 0.3 - 3 GHz
Ans: c
What is the difference between PCM and ADPCM?
1. In ADPCM, difference between two consecutive
samples is used to represent the signal, whereas
sample values are directly used in PCM.
2. In PCM, the size of the interval between two
samples is fixed, whereas it can be varied in
ADPCM.
3. ADPCM needs a less amount of bits to
represent a signal compared to PCM.
4. Decoding a PCM signal is easier than an ADPCM
signal.