KINETIC MOLECULAR

MODEL OF SOLIDS
AND LIQUIDS
 The kinetic molecular model
explains the properties of solids
and liquids in terms of the
intermolecular forces of
attraction and the kinetic energy
of the individual particles.
 Intermolecular forces pull the
particles together, while kinetic
energy keeps the particles at a
distance and/or moving around.
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
 - has definite shape
- does not flow
- virtually incompressible
- expands when heated
- strongly attracted to each other
- vibrates a little, but not much
compared to liquids and gases
- vibrates more when heated
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
 - has no definite shape
- flows and takes the shape of
its container
- difficult to compress
- expands when heated
- weakly attracted to each other;
breaks their interaction easily
- vibrates and moves more than
solids
- moves faster when heated
INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
 The intermolecular forces of
attraction in a pure substance
are collectively known as Van
Der Waals Forces.
Dipole – Dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces exist
between polar molecules.
 Polar substances possess
permanent dipole moment
attributed to the difference in
electronegativities of their
component atoms and how these
atoms are arranged in space.
 A polar molecule has unequal
electron densities, resulting in a
dipole.
When two polar molecules are
brought close together, the
partially positive charge of one
molecule will be attracted to the
partially negative charge of the
neighboring molecule.
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond is a special type
of dipole-dipole interaction that
exist only in molecules that
contain a hydrogen atom bonded
to a small, highly electronegative
atom such as N, O, or F.
 Typically, a hydrogen bond is
five to ten times stronger than
another dipole-dipole attraction.
London Dispersion Forces
 London dispersion forces are
intermolecular forces that exist
between all atoms and
molecules.
These are the only forces acting
in nonpolar molecules.
Nonpolar molecules have zero
dipole moment because their
electron density is uniform and
symetrical.
London dispersion forces are
attractions between an
instantaneous dipole and an
induced dipole in neighboring
molecules.
 The size of the molecule can
affect the London dispersion
force between two molecules.
Ion – Dipole Forces
Ion – dipole force acts between
an ion and a polar molecule.
 The degree of ion-dipole
interaction depends on the size
and charge of the ion and on the
size and dipole moment of the
polar molecule.
 Ion-dipole attraction becomes
stronger either as the charge of
the ion increases or as the
magnitude of the dipole moment
of the polar molecule increases.
 What type of intermolecular
force will act on the following
substances? Justify your
answer.
 sulfur dioxide (SO2)

nitrogen gas (N2)

hydrogen fluoride (HF)

 carbon dioxide (CO2)

neon gas (Ne)

magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

dissolved in water
INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES AND
PROPERTIES OF
LIQUIDS
 Some of the general properties
of liquids are surface tension,
viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling
point, and heat of vaporization.
These properties are influenced
by the intermolecular forces of
attraction in a substance.
Surface Tension
 Surface tension is the property
of a liquid to resist external force
and thus assume a lesser
surface area.
This is attributed to the strong
attractive and cohesive forces
between and among the
molecules, particularly at the
surface of the liquid.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a
liquid to flow.
The greater the intermolecular
forces, the more viscous the
substance.
Long-chained substances have
greater intermolecular forces
because there are more atoms
that can attract one another,
contributing to the substance’s
total attractive forces.
Vapor Pressure
 The vapor pressure of a
substance is the pressure
exerted by its vapor when in
equilibrium with its liquid or
solid.
This means that when a liquid or
a solid substance is made to
evaporate in a closed container,
the gas exerts a pressure above
the liquid or solid.
 Substances with strong
intermolecular forces will have
low vapor pressure because the
particles will have difficulty
escaping as a gas.
Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is
the temperature at which its
vapor pressure is equal to the
external or atmospheric
pressure.
 Increasing the temperature of a
liquid raises the kinetic energy of its
molecules until such point where the
energy of the particle movement
exceeds the intermolecular forces
that hold them together.
 The temperature at which a
liquid boil under an atmospheric
pressure of 760mmHg (1atm) is
referred to as normal boiling
point.
 The boiling point of a liquid is
influenced by the strength of its
intermolecular forces.
The greater the attractive forces,
the higher the energy needed to
increase the kinetic energy of
the molecules to break these
forces.
Heat of Vaporization
 Molar heat of vaporization
(∆Hvap) is the amount of heat
required to vaporized one mole
of a substance at its boiling
point.
STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES OF
WATER
At room temperature, pure water
is colorless, odorless, and
tasteless liquid.
It turns to ice, its solid form, at
0°C and 1atm. At 100°C, it
becomes a gas, termed steam.
 A water molecule has a bent
shape, with two partially positive
hydrogen atoms and a partially
negative oxygen atom.
 TYPES AND
PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS
 Solids can be classified as
crystalline or amorphous based
on the arrangement of their
properties.
Amorphous Solids
Amorphous solids are formed
rapidly that its constituent
particles do not have time to
align or organize into a more
defined crystalline lattice.
Crystalline Solids
A crystalline solid has a well-
defined crystal lattice.
 Lattice is a three-dimensional
system of points designating the
positions of the components that
make up a crystal.
A unit cell is the smallest
repeating unit of a lattice
 Crystalline solids can be
categorized into different types.
 Ionic solids have ions at
different points of the lattice.
Molecular solids have discrete
covalently bonded molecules at
each of its lattice points.
 Other types of crystalline solids
are metallic solids, network
solids, and Group 8A solids
depending on the bond that exist
among the atoms in the solid.
 Metallic solids are composed
of metal atoms bonded together
by metallic bonds.
Network solids are covalently
bonded atoms that form a
continuous network.
 Group 8A solids consist of
atoms of noble gases held
together by London dispersion
forces.
PHASE CHANGES
AND PHASE
DIAGRAMS
 Each substance has specific
conditions at which their phase
changes occur.
A phase diagram is a graphical
representation of the P-T
relationship that apply to the
equilibria between the phases of
a substance.
Triple point is where all three
phases coexist in equilibrium.
 Critical point is the T-P
condition at and above which
the vapor of the substance
cannot be liquefied no matter
how much pressure is applied.
 Supercritical fluid is a
substance that has a
temperature above its critical
temperature and a density near
its liquid density.
 SOLUTIONS AND
THEIR PROPERTIES
Solutions are mixtures of two or
more substances evenly
distributed throughout a single
phase.
Solute

Solvent
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
 Unsaturated

Saturated

Supersaturated
CONCENTRATION OF
SOLUTIONS
 The concentration of a solution
is the measure of the amount of
solute in a given amount of
solvent or solution.
Percent by Mass
 mass of solute
% mass = x 100
mass of solution
 If 28.5g of calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 is dissolved in enough
water to make 185g od solution,
what is the percent by mass of
Ca(OH)2 in the solution?
Percent by Volume
 vol. of solute
% vol. = x 100
vol. of solution
A wine contains 20% alcohol by
volume. Calculate the volume
(mL) of alcohol in 500mL of the
wine.
Percent by Mass-Volume
 mass of solute
% mass − vol. = x 100
vol. of solution
A 50mL of 12% by mass-volume
solution was used in an
experiment. How many grams of
solute does the solution
contain?
Mole Fraction
 The mole fraction (x) of a
component in a solution is equal
to the number of moles of that
component divided by the total
number of moles of all the
components present.
 nA
xA =
nA + nB
 nB
xB =
nA + nB
xA + xB = 1
 m
# of moles =
MM
 Calculate the mole fraction of
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in 8%
(m/m) aqueous H2SO4, solution

MM H2SO4 = 98 g/mol;
MM H2O = 18 g/mol
Molality
The molality of a solution is the
number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent.
 moles of solute
molality =
mass of solvent (kg)
The unit of molality is molal (m)
Calculate the molal concentration
of a solution that contains 18g of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
100mL of water.

MM NaOH = 40g/mol
Molarity
The molarity of a solution is the
number of moles of solute per
liter of solution.
 moles of solute
molarity =
volume of solution (L)
The unit or molarity is molar (M).
 Determine the molarity of a
solution that contains 25g of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) in
250mL of solution.

MM KOH = 56g/mol
Parts per Million
 Parts per million (ppm)
expresses the number of parts
of solute per one million parts of
the solution.
 grams of solute 6
ppm = (1x10 )
grams of solution
 1mg 1mL
1 ppm = =
kg kL
 17g of sucrose (C12H22O11) is
dissolved in 183g of water
(H2O). What is the concentration
of sucrose in ppm?
 SOLUTION
STOICHIOMETRY
 Stoichiometric analysis of
solutions involves the use of a
balanced chemical equation and
can be done through these
general steps:
express the given amount in
moles
 convert the moles of the given
substance to the moles of the
desired substance using the
stoichiometric factor derived from
the balanced chemical equation
convert the moles of the sought
substance to any desired units
or expression
Calculate the mass of calcium
nitrate [Ca(NO3)2] that can be
produced by reacting 136mL of
4.0 M nitric acid (HNO3) with
excess calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2].
2 HNO3 + Ca(OH)2  2 H2O + Ca(NO3)2
How many liters of 0.53M HCl is
required to neutralize 0.78g of
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)?

MM of Na2CO3 = 105.99g/mol
2 HCl + Na2CO3  2 NaCl + H2CO3
FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
Solubility is a chemical property
referring to the ability for a given
substance, the solute, to
dissolve in a solvent.
 Solubility is the maximum
amount of a solute that can
dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a specific
temperature.
Nature of solute and solvent
Particle size
Stirring
Temperature
Pressure
 COLLIGATIVE
PROPERTIES OF
SOLUTIONS
 Some properties of solutions
depend on the nature of their
constituent substances, while
others depend solely on the
number of the solute particles in
the solution.
 These quantity-dependent
properties are collectively called
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES.
Vapor Pressure Lowering
Freezing Point Depression
Boiling Point Elevation
Osmotic Pressure
 Solutions that depend on the
nature of their components can
be classified as electrolytes or
nonelectrolytes.
 Electrolytes are particles that
ionize in a solution; as a result,
they conduct electricity.
 Polar covalent compounds
dissolve in water as molecules
and not as ions.
Nonelectrolytes are those that
do not ionize in a solution.
Vapor Pressure
Lowering
 The VAPOR PRESSURE of a
solution with a nonvolatile solute
is always lower than that of the
pure solvent.
 Freezing Point
Depression and
Boiling Point Elevation
One mole of any nonelectrolyte
will lower the freezing point of a
given amount of solvent by a
constant amount referred to as
the FREEZING POINT
DEPRESSION CONSTANT (Kf).
Consider the Kf of water equal to
1.86℃∙kg/mol or 1.86℃/m.
If one mole of sugar is dissolved
in one kilogram of water, the
freezing point of the solution will
be -1.86℃.
∆𝐭 𝐟 = −(𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲)(𝐊 𝐟 )
 One mole of any nonvolatile,
nonelectrolyte solute will elevate
the boiling point of a given
amount of solvent by a constant
factor depending on what the
solvent is.
This factor is referred to as the
MOLAL BOILING POINT
ELEVATION CONSTANT (Kb).
The Kb for water is 0.52℃∙kg/mol
or 0.52 ℃/m.
A solution of one mole of sugar in
one kilogram of water will have a
boiling point of 100.52 ℃.
∆𝐭 𝐛 = (𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲)(𝐊 𝐛 )
Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis is a process through
which a solvent flow through a
semi-permeable membrane from
a less concentrated solution to a
more concentrated one.
Osmotic pressure is the amount
of pressure required to stop
osmosis.