Hamiltonian Function H

The Lagrangian, in general is the function of

q1 , q 2 ,..., q k ,...q1 , q 2 ,..., q k ,...and , t
L  L(q1 , q 2 ,..., q k ,...q1 , q 2 ,..., q k ,..., t )  L(q k , q k , t )
L L L
 
dL
 q k  qk 
dt k q k k q k t (1)
The Lagrangian equation is
d  L  L
   0
dt  q k  qk
L d  L 
  
or qk dt  q k 
(2)
With this substitution equation (1) becomes
d  L  L L
 dt  q 
dL
 q k  qk 
k q k t
dt k k  
d  L  L
 
k

dt  q k
q k  
 t
d  L  L
i.e.,
L 
dt 
 q
k k
q k  
 t (3)
L
But q  pk  generalised momentum
k
Equation (3) may be written as
d   L
L 
dt 
 k
p k q k  
 t
d   L

dt 

k
p k q k  L   
 t (4)
Now let us introduce a new function H known as Hamiltonian function defined as

H  p q
k
(5)
k k  L( p, q , t )
It will be seen later on, H is equal to the total energy in most of the physical problems.
From equation (5) it is seen that Hamiltonian H is the function of p, q and t
H  H ( p, q, t ) (6)

Hamilton’s Equation
The Hamiltonian function H is function of p, q and t,
H  H ( p, q, t )
 H ( p1 , p 2 ,..., p k ,...q1 , q 2 ,..., q k ,..., t )
H H H
dH   p
k k
dpk   qk k
dqk 
t
dt
(7)

From equation (5) dH   q dp   p dq

k
k k
k
k k  dL (8)

L  L(q1 , q2 ,..., qk ,...q1 , q 2 ,..., q k ,..., t ),

L L L
dL   q
k k
dqk   q
k k
q k 
t
dt

L L L
  q
k k
dqk   p dq
k
k k 
t
dt Since q k
 pk (9)
Substituting the value of dL from equation (9) in (8), we have
L L (10)
dH   q dp   p dq   q
k
k k
k
k k
k k
dqk   p dq
k
k k 
t
dt
 L L
dH   q dp   p dq
k
k k
k
k k 
t
dt Since
q k
 p k from equ. (2) (11)

Comparing coefficient of dqk , dpk and dt in equations (7) and (11)

H 
q k  
pk 

H  (12)
 p k 
qk 

L H
  (13)
t t
Equation (12) are referred as Hamilton’s equations or canonical equations of motion.

Physical significance of the Hamiltonian function

The Hamiltonian function H is function of p,q and t,
i.e., H  H ( p1 , p2 ,..., pk ,...,q1 , q2 ,...,qk ,...,t )
Total time derivative of H is
H H H
 q  p
dH
 q k  p k 
dt k k k k t
H
  p q   p q
k
k k
k
k k 
t
[From equation (12)]
H (1)

t
But according to equation H L

t t
Therefore dH L (2)

dt t

If L is not an explicit function of time, L  0 thereby giving

t
dH
0
dt (3)
i.e., H= Constant
Thus we may state that if the Lagrangian L is not an explicit function of time, the
Hamiltonian H is constant of motion
For conservative system:- The potential energy does not depend upon generalised velocity
V
i.e., 0 (4)
q k

Also we know that
H  p q
k
k k L

L
 
k q k
q k  L

  
 
k
q k 
 q k
(T  V )  (T  V )

 T V 
 
k
q k     (T  V )
 q k q k 
T
 
k
q k
q k
 (T  V ) From equation (4)
   
 
1
 q k  mi qi2   (T  V )

 2 m q
q k 1
k  i 2  Since T 2
i i
  m q
k
2
i i  (T  V ) i

 2T  T  V
 T V
H  K .E.  P.E.
 E  Total potential energy of the system
Thus for a conservative system, where the coordinate transformation is independent of time,
the Hamiltonian function H represent the total energy of the system.

Applications of Hamilton Equations:- Dynamical problems can be solved easily using

generalised coordinates and Lagrange’s equation. In fact there is hardly a mechanical
problem where generalised coordinates are not applicable. For the solution of problems
Hamiltonian equations are generally not so convenient as the Lagrangian equations and for
their relation to more advanced mechanics particularly to three fields; celestial mechanics,
statistical mechanics, and quantum mechanics.
 Variational Principle
In mechanical problems that are complex, owing to the presence of various forces of
constant, it becomes quite difficult to obtain a solution using Newton’s equations.
Variational principles deal the problems in which the quantity to be minimized or
maximized appears as integral.
Calculus of Variations:- A dynamical problem means that we want to locate the position of
the system. We are also interested in the path adopted
by the system. Two paths which a particle may
follow in going from position 1 to position 2 are
shown in fig. The straight line path is shortest and
can be represented as
y  mx  c
y  y (x)

Here y is a function of independent parameter x. For

each value of x there will be fixed value of y. The
length of the path denoted by (say I)

  dx  dy
I  ds  2 2

dy
  (1  y ) dx
2 y 
dx
  f ( y)dx   f ( y, y, x)dx
We know that path I is the integral of the function f , which itself is function of y. If we want
that path I be extremum, any variation  in it. i.e., I should be zero that is

I    f ( y, y , x)dx  0


  f [( y ( x), y ( x), x)dx  0

This is the formulation of the problem of calculus of variations. y   y2  y1 x

y  mx  c will represent straight line path only. Therefore to include other paths we require
another parameter say 
y  y  x,  
So that y  y x,1  and y  y x, 2  may represent two paths.
However the relationship can be expressed as

y x,   y x,0   ( x)

Where  (x) is any arbitrary function of x which is vanish at end points. Note   0 in y x,0 
to represent extremum path. Thus  represents the paths. It mean I the path length which
different for different paths, will also be a function of  i.e., I  I   so that


I ( )   f [( y( x, ), y ( x, ), x)dx  0

Thus x is same for all paths considered i.e., x is not a function of  or we can write
x
0

Further, at end points, all paths meet and therefore there is no variation even in y coordinate
at end points y
0
 end points 1 & 2

Principle of Least Action

A French mathematics Pierre de Maupertuis in 1740 annunciated the famous principle of
least action.
Consider a particle moving from point 1 to point 2 in space. Then out of all possible paths
between these two fixed points in space, the actual path traversed by the particle is the one
for which the integral called the action
2
S  mvds
1

the variation of the path should vanish, i.e.,

2
S    mvds  0
1
This principle was first published as an exact dynamical theorem by Leonard Euler in
1774, who proved it for a single particle moving in a plane. Finally Joseph Lagrange in
1760 formulated the principle of least action in a form application to general case like
many particle system. Lagrange stated this principle as follows
  m1 v1ds1  m2 v2 ds2  .......  0
 2 2

 1  1  E

  mi  vi dsi   0
2
(1)
 1 E
We know that mi vi dsi  mi vi dri  pi vi dt
 2
  ( pi .vi )dt  0
1 E
In term of generalised coordinates this means
2 2
  pi . qi dt    pi . dqi 0 (2)
1 E 1 E

The principle of lest action expressed as in equation (1) is sometimes called Lagrange’s
principle of least action. Since pk q k  2T , another equivalent form of (2) is
2
12Tdt E  0 (3)
Which is sometimes called Jacobi’s principle of least action. One more equivalent form that
reduced from
2
1 2mi ( Ei  Vi )dsi E  0 (4)
Where Ei  1 mi vi2  Vi and Vi are the total energy and the potential energy respectively.
2

Deduction of Principle of Least Action:- For the deduction of principle of least action we
have to use a variation  , in which
(i) time as well as position coordinates are allowed to vary.
(ii) time t varies even at the end points of the path.
(ii) the position coordinates are held fixed at the end points of the path i.e., qk  0 the end
points.
The action A we write

 
t2 t2
A
t1
j
p j q j dt  t1
( L  H ) dt

t2
A t1
Ldt  H (t 2  t1 )
(1)
Since H is conserved,  variation of action is
t2
A   
t1
Ldt  H(t 2  t1 )
t2

t
 Ldt  Ht t2 (2)
t1 1

Now we proceed to solve remaining integral

t2
 
t1
Ldt
Since t1 and t 2 limit are also subject to change in this variation  cannot be taken inside the
integral. Let t2

t1
Ldt  I

So that I  L
If  is variational parameter, then in  process t is independent of  ; but in  process t is
function of even at the end points, i.e.,t  t ( ) . Thus the function qk depends on t and 
throught.
Analytically  variation is defined as q  q ( , t )
j j

 dq j ( , t ) 
q j  dq j  d  
 d 
  q j d q j dt 
q j  d   
  d  t d 
 q j dt 
 d   q j 
  d 
d
or q j  q j  q j t    t
dt
dt q j
Since d  t ; q j  d
d 
d
    t
dt
t2
 
t1
Ldt  I (t 2 ) I (t1 )

  
 I (t 2 )  I(t 2 )t 2  I (t1 )  I(t1 )t1 
 I (t )  I (t )  I(t )t  I(t )t
2 1 2 2 1 1

 I t12  Lt 2  Lt1

t

t2
 
t
Ldt  Lt t2
t1 1

I (t 2 )  I (t1 )  I tt12    Ldt

t2
I(t2 )t2  I(t1 )t1  Lt2  Lt1  Lt t2
t
Because and
t1 1
Applying
I  I  It
t t
  Ldt    Ldt  Lt t2
2 2 t
or (3)
t1 t1 1
Putting equation (3) in equation (2) we get
 t2
A   
t t
Ldt  Lt t2  Ht t2
(4)
t1 1 1
t2
Here  t1 Ldt cannot be zero in consequence of Hamilton’s principle. Hamilton’s principle
requires that q j  0 at end points on the path but in this variation q j  0 at the end points and
not q j .
Now the integral can be written as
 L L 

t2 t2
  Ldt    q j  q j  dt
 q j q j 
 
t1 t1
j

 d  L  
q j  L d q j   dt
 
t2
  
t1
j  dt  q j  q j dt 

L d  L  d
qk 
After putting   from Lagrange’s equation of motion also we know that q k 
q j dt  q j 

dt
Thus
 
  p q
t2 t2 d
  Ldt   j j  pj q j  dt
t1 t1
j dt 
[Since p j  L ]
   
t2 d
 p jq j dt q j
t1
j dt

  dt p q 
t2 d
 j j  q j .t dt
t1
j
[using q j  q j  q j t ]
   d ( p j q j )    d ( p j q j t )
t2 t2

t1 t1 (5)
j j
But  pk , qk tt12  0 Since qk  0 at end point. Equation (3) becomes
  Ldt  [( L   p j q j )t ]tt2  Ht t12
t2 t
(6)
t1 1
j
For which H remains constant, then
Ht 
t2
 
t2
t1 Hdt
t1
Therefore equation (6) becomes
t2 t2
 
t1
Ldt   
t1
Hdt

 p q
t2 t2
 
t1
( L  H )dt   t1
(L 
j
j j  L)dt  0

  p q dt  0
t2
 j j (7)
t1
j
This is principle of least action.
The quantity t  p j q j is generally called the Hamilton’s characteristics function but  p j q j  2T
t2

1 j j
Therefore,
t2
 2Tdt  0
t1
(8)

Which is another form of Principle of Least Action.

 Hamilton’s Principle
Hamilton’s principle of least action where the end points of the paths are fixed both in
space and time but the energy at any point of the varied path need not the same as at the
corresponding point on the real path. Hamilton suggested this principle in 1834. This
principle Statet2
that a dynamical system moves from time t1 to time t2 is such that the line
integral I  t Ldt is an extremum for the path of motion. If we define the various paths that
1
the system point takes to travel, by a parameter  , then implies that

 I  t2
  dx  I  
   0 
t1
Ldt  0 (1)

Deduction of Hamilton’s Principle:- Let us consider that the conservative holonomic

dynamical system move from P and Q, where P and Q, are the initial and final
configurations of the system at times t1 and t2 respectively.
Let PRQ be the actual path and PR’Q, PR”Q the two
neighbouring paths out of infinite number of possibilities.
For the deduction of Hamilton’s principle the following
two condition must be satisfied
(i) t must be equal to zero at the end points, i.e., at t1 the
particle must be at P and at t2 the particle must be at Q.
(ii) t must be equal to zero at the end points, i.e., The points P and Q are fixed in space.
Let the system be acted upon by a number of forces represented by F, let the particle of the
system acted upon by force Fi acquire acceleration ri so that we have
Fi  mi ri
From D’Alembert’s principle, we have
 (F  m r )r
i i i i 0

   m r r  0
i
or Fi ri i i i (2)
i i

d d
But ri ri  (ri .ri )  ri (ri ) (3)
dt dt
if there is a little variation along the actual path and neighboring paths, we have
ri  ri  ri
d d dr  dr
Then (ri )  (ri  ri )  i  i
dt dt dt dt
 dr 
  i   ri
 dt  (4)
Here primes have been used for neighbouring paths.
Using (4) and (3) may be written as
d
ri ri  (ri .ri )  ri . (ri ) (5)
dt
Using above equation (2) becomes
d 
 i
Fi ri   i
mi 
 dt
(ri .ri )  ri .ri   0

 d 2
 F r   m  dt (r .r )  2 r
or 1
i i i i i i 0
i i 

  
1 d
or Fi ri  mi (ri2 )  (mi ri .ri )
i i 2 i dt

 F r   2 m r   dt (m r .r )
1 2 d
or i i i i i i i (6)
i i i

but  Fi ri = work done by the force Fi during displacement ri  W (say ) and  2 mi ri is equal
2 1
i i
to kinetic energy of the system T
Therefore, the equation (6) becomes
W  T  
d
(mi ri .ri )
i dt
Integrating above expression between the limits t1 and t 2 , we get
  dt (m r .r )dt
t2 t2 d

t1
(W  T )dt 
t1
i
i i i


t2
 d (mi ri .ri )dt
t1
i

  m r .r 
i
i i
Q
i P

Since ri  0 at the end points P and Q

0
For a conservative system, we know that W  V where V is the potential energy.
t2

t1
(V  T )dt  0
t2
  (T  V )dt  0
t2

t1
 (T  V )dt  0 i.e., t1
 t2
or   Ldt  0
t1

t2
or t1 Ldt  I extremum,
Which is the Hamilton’s principle

Deduction of Lagrange’s equation by Hamilton’s principle:- From equation (1), we know

that the Hamilton’s principle
 I  t2 t2
  dx  I  
   0 t1
Ldt  0    t1
[T (q j q j )  V (q j )]dt  0

 T T  V 
 
t2
 q j  q j   q j dt  0
or t1
j  q j q j  q j
 
 T V  T
   
t2 t2
or   q j dt  q j dt  0
 q j q j  q j

 
t1 t1
j j

 T V  T d
    q
t2 t2
or   q j dt  (q j )dt  0
 q j q j  dt
 
t1 t1
j j j

Integrating by part of second term, we get

t2
 T V  T d  T 
    
t2 t2
  q j dt  q j  q j dt  0
 q j q j  q j dt  q j 
  
t1 t1
j j t1 j
 t2
Since in such a variation, there is no coordinates variation at end points, q j  0 , Hence
t1
 T V  d  T 
   
t2 t
  q j dt  2 q dt  0
 q j q j  dt  q j  j
   
t1 t1
j j

 T V d  T  
  
t2
 q  q dt  0
or  q j q j j dt  q j   j
 
t1
j 

Since each q j are independent of each other, the coefficient of every q j should be zero to
satisfy above equation   
T V d  T 
   0

 j     
q q j dt  j 
q
 d  T   
or     (T  V )  0
 
  j 
dt q  q j 

Now, for conservative system, V is not a function of velocities q j but only of coordinates.
Therefore
 d   (T  V )   
    (T  V )  0
 
dt  q  q 
j  j

but T  V  L , then
 d  L  L 
   0
 dt  q j  q j 
 
This called Lagrange’s equation of motion.
Problem 1:- Use Hamilton’s principle to find the equation of motion of one dimensional
harmonic oscillation.
Problem 2:- A surface is generated by revolving the curve y(x) along the axis of X. Apply
variational principle of choose the curve y(x), which passes through two fixed points (x1 ,y1 )
and (x2 ,y2 ) so that the area of the resulting surface may be minimum.

Problem 3:- Prove that the shortest distance between two points in a plane is a straight line.
or
Find the shortest distance between two points in a plane.
Problem 4:- A particle moves under the influence of gravity on the frictionless inner surface
of the paraboloid of revolution x2 +y2 =az. Obtained the equation of motion.