Protein Synthesis

From: Protein Data Bank PDB ID: 1A3N

Tame, J., Vallone, B.: Deoxy Human Hemoglobin. 1998
Why Studying Proteins?

They perform many vital functions :

• Catalysis of reactions  enzymes
• Structural support  collagen, keratin
• Transport  hemoglobin, transferrin
• Movement  actin, myosin
• Hormones  insulin, growth hormone, etc.
• Storage  glycogen, ferritin
• Protection  antibodies (immunoglobulin)
• Transmission of signals
• Regulation  control the expression of
genes
 What’s Protein?
• Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
• Constructed from 20 different amino acids that
are encoded in the DNA of the genome
• Protein can divide into 2 major types :
- Fibrous protein  insoluble in water, used
mainly for structural purposes. Ex. keratin
- Globular protein  more or less soluble in
water, used mainly for nonstructural purposes
Ex. globulin
 Stages of gene expression

Information stored in DNA , transferred to RNA and

then expressed in the structure of proteins
Transcription - information transcribed from DNA
into mRNA
Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acids made up of
chains of nucleotides
 Nucleotides consist of:
 A base
 A sugar (ribose)
 A phosphate
 Two types of nucleic acids
in cells:
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Adapted from: Bettelheim FA and March J (1990)
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Introduction to Organic and Biochemistry
(International Edition). Philadelphia: Saunders
College Publishing p383.
Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acids have
primary and
secondary structures
 DNA
 Double-stranded helix
 H-bonds between
strands
 RNA
 3 kinds (mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA) From: Bettelheim FA and March J (1990) Introduction to Organic and
Biochemistry (International Edition). Philadelphia: Saunders College
 All single strands Publishing p391 (Left panel) and 393 (Right panel).

 H-bonds within strands

Complementarity of bases
DNA RNA
Adenine Uracil**
 The different bases in the
nucleotides which make up Thymine* Adenine

DNA and RNA are: Guanine Cytosine

 Adenine Cytosine Guanine
 Guanine Table showing complementarity of base pairs
* Present only in DNA
 Cytosine **Present only in RNA
 Thymine (DNA only)
 Uracil (RNA only)
 Chemical structure only allows
bases to bind with specific
other bases due to chemical
structure From: Elliott WH & Elliott DC. (1997) Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. New
York: Oxford University Press. P245.
 DNA
 DNA
 Located in 23 pairs of
chromosomes in nucleus
of cell
 DNA has two functions:
 Replication -
reproduces itself when
cell divides
 Information
transmission
– via protein synthesis
From: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of Anatomy
and Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
P86.
DNA
 DNA contains genetic
information
 Gene - segment of DNA
on a chromosome that
codes for a particular
protein
 Coding contained in
sequence of bases (on
mRNA) which code for
a particular amino acid
(i.e. genetic code)
 Genetic code universal
in all organisms
– Mitochondrial DNA From: Elliott WH & Elliott DC. (1997) Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. New
slightly different York: Oxford University Press. P294.
RNA
 Four types of RNA:
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries genetic
information from DNA in nucleus to cytoplasm
where proteins synthesised
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) - carries amino acids from
amino acid pool to mRNA
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - joins with ribosomal
proteins in ribosome where amino acids joined to
form protein primary structure.
 Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) - associated with
proteins in nucleus to form small nuclear
ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) which delete
introns from pre-mRNA
Information transmission

 Information stored in DNA transferred to

RNA and then expressed in the structure
of proteins
 Two steps in process:
 Transcription - information transcribed from DNA
into mRNA
 Translation - information in mRNA translated into
primary sequence of a protein
Transcription
 Information transcribed from DNA into
RNA
 mRNA carries information for protein
structure, but other RNA molecules formed
in same way
 RNA polymerase binds to promoter
nucleotide sequence at point near gene to
be expressed
 DNA helix unwinds
 RNA nucleotides assemble along one DNA
strand (sense strand) in complementary
sequence to order of bases on DNA
beginning at start codon (AUG - methionine)
 Transcription of DNA sense strand ends at
terminator nucleotide sequence
 mRNA moves to ribosome
 DNA helix rewinds

From: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of Anatomy and

Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons. P88.
Transcriptional control
 Each cell nucleus contains all genes for that organism but genes
only expressed as needed
 Transcription regulated by transcription factors
 Proteins produced by their own genes
 If transcription factors promote transcription - activators
 If transcription factors inhibit transcription - repressors
 General transcription factors interact with RNA polymerase to
activate transcription of mRNA
 Numerous transcription factors required to initiate transcription
 General transcription factors set base rate of transcription
 Specific transcription factors interact with general transcription
factors to modulate rate of transcription
 Some hormones also cause effects by modulating rate of gene
transcription
Regulation of transcription in skeletal muscle

 Ca2+ initiates contraction

 Cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration
reflects frequency and duration of
fibre activation
 Calcium binds to calmodulin (CaM)
 Ca2+-CaM complex binds to
calcineurin (a protein phosphatase)
 Calcineurin dephosphorylates
transcription factor called nuclear
factor of activated T cells (NFAT)
 NFAT first identified in T cells, but also
found in skeletal muscle
 NFAT binds to response element in
nucleus
 Response element regulates gene
transcription
– Increases expression of genes for From: Houston ME (2001) Biochemistry Primer for Exercise Science.
Champaign: Human Kinetics, p168.
myogenic regulatory factors
 influence synthesis of myosin
light and heavy chains
Translation (protein synthesis)

 Information in mRNA translated

into primary sequence of a protein
in 4 steps:
 ACTIVATION
 INITIATION
 ELONGATION
 TERMINATION
Translation (protein synthesis)

 ACTIVATION
 Each amino acid
activated by
reacting with ATP
 tRNA synthetase
enzyme attaches
activated amino
acid to own
particular tRNA
Adapted from: Bettelheim FA and March J (1990) Introduction to Organic and
Biochemistry (International Edition). Philadelphia: Saunders College
Publishing p398
Translation (protein synthesis)

 INITIATION
 mRNA attaches to
smaller body of
ribosome
 Initiator tRNA attaches
to start codon
 Larger body of ribosome
combines with smaller
body

From: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of Anatomy and

Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons. P88.
 Translation (protein synthesis)

 ELONGATION
 Anticodon of next tRNA binds to
mRNA codon at A site of ribosome
 Each tRNA specific for one amino
acid only, but some amino acids
coded for by up to 6 codons
– Order of bases in mRNA codons
determine which tRNA
anticodons will align and
therefore determines order of
amino acids in protein
 Amino acid at A site linked to
previous amino acid
 Ribosome moves along one codon
and next tRNA binds at A site

From: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of Anatomy and

Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons. P88.
Translation (protein synthesis)

 TERMINATION
 Final codon on mRNA
contains termination
signal
 Releasing factors cleave
polypeptide chain from
tRNA that carried final
amino acid
 mRNA released from
ribosome and broken
down into nucleotides
From: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons. P88.
Control of protein synthesis

 Rate of protein synthesis:

 suppressed during exercise
 increases for up to 48 hours post-exercise
 Increased protein synthesis during post-exercise period
– unlikely to be due to increased transcription of RNA
 Changes in protein synthesis independent of total RNA

– more likely due to change in translational control of mRNA

 Recent evidence points to involvement of translational

initiation factors (eIF4E & eIF4G)

 Extent of post-exercise protein synthesis also
dependent on half-life of mRNA
 Controlled by ribonucleases (degradative enzymes)
 Other proteins stabilise and destabilise mRNA against
degradation by ribonucleases
Mitochondrial protein synthesis

 Mitochondria contain own DNA

and protein synthesizing
machinery
 Mitochondrial genetic code
slightly different
 Codon-anticodon interactions
simplified
 Manage with only 22 species of
tRNA
 Synthesise only small number of
proteins
Adapted from: Tortora, GJ & Grabowski SR (2000) Principles of
 Most mitochondrial proteins coded Anatomy and Physiology (9th Ed). New York: John Wiley &
Sons. P84.
for in nucleus and transported into
mitochondria
Protein degradation

 Protein content of a cell depends on

balance between protein synthesis and
degradation
 Change in protein = synthesis rate - degradation rate
Protein degradation

 Three main protein degrading systems in muscle:

 Ubiquitin-proteosome
– Protein marked for degradation by attachment of ubiquitin units
– Inactive 20S proteosome activated by regulatory protein to
become active 26S proteosome
– 26S proteosome breaks protein into small peptides
 Small peptides broken down into free amino acids by other

processes in cell
 Lysosomal
– Proteins enter lysosome via endocytosis
 cathepsins and proteinases degrade bonds

 Calpain
– Calcium activated proteinase in cytosol of cell
 Various isomers activated at different calcium concentrations