Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol (IP)

• is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol
suite for relaying datagrams across network boundaries.
Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially
establishes the Internet.
• IP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host solely based on the IP addresses in the
packet headers. For this purpose, IP defines packet structures
that encapsulate the data to be delivered. It also defines addressing
methods that are used to label the datagram with source and
destination information.
• Historically, IP was the connectionless datagram service in the original
Transmission Control Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob
Kahn in 1974, which was complemented by a connection-oriented
service that became the basis for the Transmission Control
Protocol(TCP). The Internet protocol suite is therefore often referred
to as TCP/IP.
• The first major version of IP, Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is the
dominant protocol of the Internet. Its successor, Internet Protocol
Version 6 (IPv6), has been growing in adoption, reaching almost 25%
of all Internet traffic as of October, 2018
Function

• The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing host interfaces,

encapsulating data into datagrams (including fragmentation and
reassembly) and routing datagrams from a source host interface to a
destination host interface across one or more IP networks.[2] For
these purposes, the Internet Protocol defines the format of packets
and provides an addressing system.
• Each datagram has two components: a header and a payload. The IP
header includes source IP address, destination IP address, and other
metadata needed to route and deliver the datagram. The payload is
the data that is transported. This method of nesting the data payload
in a packet with a header is called encapsulation.
• IP addressing entails the assignment of IP addresses and associated
parameters to host interfaces. The address space is divided
into subnetworks, involving the designation of network prefixes. IP
routing is performed by all hosts, as well as routers, whose main
function is to transport packets across network boundaries. Routers
communicate with one another via specially designed routing
protocols, either interior gateway protocols or exterior gateway
protocols, as needed for the topology of the network.
•
Sample encapsulation of application data from UDP (User Datagram Protocol) to a
Link protocol frame
Version history

• In May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

published a paper entitled "A Protocol for Packet Network
Intercommunication".[3] The paper's authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn,
described an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet
switching among network nodes. A central control component of this
model was the "Transmission Control Program" that incorporated both
connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts. The
monolithic Transmission Control Program was later divided into a modular
architecture consisting of the Transmission Control Protocol and User
Datagram Protocol at the transport layer and the Internet Protocol at
the internet layer. The model became known as the Department of Defense
(DoD) Internet Model and Internet protocol suite, and informally as TCP/IP.
• The assignment of the new protocol as IPv6 was uncertain until due
diligence revealed that IPv6 had not yet been used previously.[5] Other
protocol proposals named IPv9 and IPv8briefly surfaced, but had no
affiliation with any international standards body, and have had no
support.[6] However, on April 1, 1994, the IETF published an April
Fools' Day joke about IPv9.[7]
• IP versions 0 to 3 were experimental versions, used between 1977
and 1979. The following Internet Experiment Note (IEN) documents
describe versions of the Internet Protocol prior to the modern version
of IPv4:
• IEN 2 (Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP), dated August 1977
describes the need to separate the TCP and Internet Protocol
functionalities (which were previously combined.) It proposes the first
version of the IP header, using 0 for the version field.
• IEN 26 (A Proposed New Internet Header Format), dated February
1978 describes a version of the IP header that uses a 1-bit version
field.
• IEN 28 (Draft Internetwork Protocol Description Version 2), dated
February 1978 describes IPv2.
• IEN 41 (Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4), dated June 1978
describes the first protocol to be called IPv4. The IP header is different from
the modern IPv4 header.
• IEN 44 (Latest Header Formats), dated June 1978 describes another version
of IPv4, also with a header different from the modern IPv4 header.
• IEN 54 (Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4), dated September
1978 is the first description of IPv4 using the header that would be
standardized in RFC 760.
• The dominant internetworking protocol in the Internet Layer in use today
is IPv4; the number 4 is the protocol version number carried in every IP
datagram. IPv4 is described in RFC 791 (1981).
• Version number 5 was used by the Internet Stream Protocol, an
experimental streaming protocol.
• The successor to IPv4 is IPv6. IPv6 was a result of several years of
experimentation and dialog during which various protocol models
were proposed, such as TP/IX (RFC 1475), PIP (RFC 1621) and TUBA
(TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses, RFC 1347). Its most prominent
difference from version 4 is the size of the addresses. While IPv4
uses 32 bitsfor addressing, yielding c. 4.3 billion (4.3×109) addresses,
IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses providing ca. 340 undecillion,
or 3.4×1038 addresses. Although adoption of IPv6 has been slow, as of
June 2008, all United States government systems have demonstrated
basic infrastructure support for IPv6.[4]
The main functions of protocols are:
• Identifying errors
• Compressing the data
• Deciding how the data should be sent
• Addressing the data
• Deciding how to announce sent and received data
• To understand how networks and the Internet work, you must be
familiar with the commonly used protocols. These protocols are used
to browse the web, send and receive e-mail, and transfer data files.
You will encounter other protocols as your experience in IT grows, but
they are not used as often as the common protocols described here:
TCP/IP:
• The Transmission Control Protocol /Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of
protocols has become the dominant standard for internetworking.
TCP/IP represents a set of public standards that specify how packets
of information are exchanged between computers over one or more
networks.
IPX/SPX:
• Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange is the
protocol suite originally employed by Novell Corporation’s network
operating system, NetWare. It delivers functions similar to those
included in TCP/IP. Novell in its current releases supports the TCP/IP
suite. A large installed base of NetWare networks continues to use
IPX/SPX.
NetBEUI:
• NetBIOS Extended User Interface is a protocol used primarily on small
Windows NT networks. NetBEUI cannot be routed or used by routers
to talk to each other on a large network. NetBEUI is suitable for small
peer-to-peer networks, involving a few computers directly connected
to each other. It can be used in conjunction with another routable
protocol such as TCP/IP. This gives the network administrator the
advantages of the high performance of NetBEUI within the local
network and the ability to communicate beyond the LAN over TCP/IP.
Figure 50. Commonly Used Internet Protocol
AppleTalk:
• AppleTalk is a protocol suite used to network Macintosh computers. It
is composed of a comprehensive set of protocols that span the seven
layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.
The AppleTalk protocol was designed to run over LocalTalk, which is
the Apple LAN physical topology. This protocol is also designed to run
over major LAN types, notably Ethernet and Token Ring.
•
HTTP:
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol governs how files such as text, graphics,
sound, and video are exchanged on the World Wide Web (WWW).
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) developed the standards
for HTTP.
• FTP: File Transfer Protocol provides services for file transfer and
manipulation. FTP allows multiple simultaneous connections to
remote file systems.
• SSH: Secure Shell is used to securely connect to a remote computer.
• Telnet: It is an application used to connect to a remote computer
that lacks security features.
• POP3: Post Office Protocol is used to download e-mail from a
remote mail server.
• IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol is also used to download
• e-mail from a remote mail server.
• SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to send e-mail to a
remote e-mail server.

• The more you understand about each of these protocols, the more
you will understand how networks and the Internet work.
IP Addressing
• An IP address is a number that is used to identify a device on the
network. Each device on a network must have a unique IP address to
communicate with other network devices. Network devices are those
that move data across the network, including hubs, switches, and
routers. On a LAN, each host (device that sends or receives
information on the network) and network device must have an IP
address within the same network to be able to communicate with
each other.
• A person’s name and fingerprints usually do not change. They provide
a label or address for the person’s physical aspect—the body. A
person’s mailing address, on the other hand, relates to where the
person lives or picks up mail. This address can change. On a host, the
Media Access Control (MAC) address is assigned to the host Network
Interface Card (NIC) and is known as the physical address. The
physical address remains the same regardless of where the host is
placed on the network in the same way that fingerprints remain with
someone regardless of where he or she goes.
• An IP address consists of a series of 32 binary bits (1s and 0s). It is
very difficult for humans to read a binary IP address. For this reason,
the 32 bits are grouped into four 8-bit bytes called octets. An IP
address, even in this grouped format, is hard for humans to read,
write, and remember. Therefore, each octet is presented as its
decimal value, separated by a decimal point or period. This format is
called dotted-decimal notation. When a host is configured with an IP
address, it is entered as a dotted-decimal number, such as
192.168.1.5.
• Imagine if you had to enter the 32-bit binary equivalent of this:
11000000101010000000000100000101. If you mistyped just 1 bit,
the address would be different, and the host may not be able to
communicate on the network. The logical 32-bit IP address is
hierarchical and is composed of two parts. The first part identifies
the network, and the second part identifies a host on that
network. Both parts are required in an IP address. For example, if a
host has an IP address of 192.168.18.57, the first three octets,
192.168.18, identify the network portion of the address, and the
last octet, 57, identifies the host. This is called hierarchical
addressing, because the network portion indicates the network on
which each unique host address is located. Routers only need to
know how to reach each network, not the location of each
individual host.
Five Classes of IP Address
 Subnet Mask
• The subnet mask indicates the network portion of an IP address. Like the IP
address, the subnet mask is a dotted-decimal number. Usually all hosts within
a LAN use the same subnet mask. Table 3 shows default subnet masks for
usable IP addresses that are mapped to the first three classes of IP addresses:
• 255.0.0.0: Class A, which indicates that the first octet of the IP address is the
network portion
• 255.255.0.0: Class B, which indicates that the first two octets of the IP
address are the network portion
• 255.255.255.0: Class C, which indicates that the first three octets of the IP
address are the network portion
Default Subnet Masks for Usable IP Addresses
• Class D addresses are used for multicast groups. There is no need to
allocate octet or bits to separate network and host addresses. Class E
addresses are reserved for research use only.
IpConfig
• Ipconfig is a command used to find out the IP address of a certain
network you are connected to.
• How to use the ipconfig command?
• 1) Click on Start Button, then type cmd (command prompt) on the
search box.
• 2) A black screen will appear as shown in the figure below.
Assigning a static IP Address
Here are the procedures in assigning an IP Address on a windows base
computer system:
1. Open the Control Panel’s Network Connections icon.
2. Open the icon representing your computer’s network connection.
3. Click the Properties button in the Status dialog box.
4. From the list of items, choose Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Figure 53. Wireless Network Connections Properties Dialog Box

5. Click the Properties button. The Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box appears.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
a software utility used to dynamically assign IP addresses to network
devices. This dynamic process eliminates the need to manually assign
IP addresses. A DHCP server can be set up and the hosts can be
configured to automatically obtain an IP address. When a computer is
set to obtain an IP address automatically, the other entire IP addressing
configuration boxes are dimmed or disabled. The server maintains a list
of IP addresses to assign, and it manages the process so that every
device on the network receives a unique IP address. Each address is
held for a predetermined amount of time. When the time expires, the
DHCP server can use this address for any computer that joins the
network.
These are the IP address information that a
DHCP server can assign to hosts:

IP address
Subnet mask
Default gateway
Optional values, such as a Domain Name System (DNS) server address
Ping
• The ping is a Command Prompt command used to test the ability of
the source computer to reach a specified destination computer. The
ping command is usually used as a simple way to verify that a
computer can communicate over the network with another computer
or network device.
• The ping command operates by sending Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages to the destination computer
and waiting for a response. How many of those responses are
returned, and how long it takes for them to return, are the two major
pieces of information that the ping command provides.