WT Final Notes 2015
WT Final Notes 2015
WT Final Notes 2015
TECHNOLOGY
SEMESTER-VII (CBGS)
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
PREPARED BY
MR. NILESH M. PATIL
BATCH: 2016-17
CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
1.1.
Introduction
Wireless systems have a unique capability of maintaining the same contact
number even if one moves from one location to another. This has made them
increasingly popular.
The wireless telephones are not only convenient but also provide flexibility and
versatility; there have been growing number of wireless phone subscribers as well
as service providers.
A combination of wireless communication and computer technologies has
revolutionized the world of telecommunications.
Wireless and mobile communications have found usefulness in areas such as
commerce, education, defense, etc.
According to the nature of a particular application, they can be used in homebased and industrial systems or in commercial and military environment.
There can many novel applications of such a wireless system; for example, a
bracelet worn can constantly monitor the body parameters and take needful
actions (like informing the family physician about the problem).
In commercial system, the wireless communications can be employed for
purchase or selling of goods and services, playing audio and video, payment of
telephone bills, payment of electricity bills, airline/ railway/ bus reservations, etc.
The difference between wireless and mobile devices is not much and they are used
interchangeably. However, mobile just means portable.
A laptop is a mobile device, as is a personal digital assistant (PDA). A desktop
would be a mobile device if you had the inclination to carry it around with you.
A wireless device has some sort of network connectivity. A cell phone is wireless,
and a laptop or a PDA would be wireless if they had a wireless modem.
Similarly, applications are wireless when they connect and exchange data with a
network.
1.2.
Analog signals can be converted into bits by quantizing and digitizing for use in
digital communication.
A typical wireless system communication consisting of sender and receiver is
shown in figure 1.1 below.
The main design goals of the transmitter and the receiver are to mitigate distortion and noise
from the channel. Performance metric for analog system is fidelity, whereas digital systems
are analyzed based on data rate and bit error probability as performance metrics.
Fidelity: Fidelity describes how close is the received signal to the original signal.
Fidelity defines acceptability.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
Data Rate: Data rates over channels with noise have a fundamental capacity limit.
Data rate is limited by signal power, noise power, distortion, and bit error probability.
Without distortion or noise, we can have maximum data rate with zero bit error
probability.
Bit Error Probability: It is defined as the ratio of the number of bits, elements,
characters, or blocks incorrectly received to the total number of bits, elements,
characters, or blocks sent during a specified time interval. For example, if 10 bits are
altered when 10,000 bits are transmitted, the bit error probability equals 10/10,000 =
0.001.
An important parameter in communication channel is bandwidth. For digital
communications, bandwidth of a channel is defined as the maximum number of bits
transmitted in a second (bits per second or bps) whereas for analog systems bandwidth is
defined in terms of hertz (Hz).
Shannon capacity defines maximum possible data rate for systems with noise and distortion.
In noisy channel, data rate C is defined as
C = B log2 (1 + S/N) bps
where B is the bandwidth in Hz and S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio.
Problem 1.1
In a communication channel, the channel bandwidth is 3.4 kHz and output S/N power ratio is
20dB. Calculate the channel capacity.
Solution:
Given, channel bandwidth, B = 3.4 kHz
Output S/N power ratio = 20 dB
Therefore, 10 log10 S/N = 20 dB
log10 S/N = 2
S/N = 102 = 100
Channel capacity is C = B log2 (1 + S/N) bps
= 3.4 * 103log2(1 + 100) bps
C = 22.638Kbps
Problem 1.2
Calculate the minimum SNR required to support information transmission through the
telephone channel of bandwidth 3.4 kHz at the data rate of 4800 bps.
Solution:
Given, channel data rate, C = 4800 bps; bandwidth, B = 3.4 kHz
Channel capacity is C = B log2 (1 + S/N) bps
4800 = 3.4 * 103log2(1 + S/N)
1.411 = log2(1 + S/N)
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
1 + S/N = 21.411
1 + S/N = 2.659
S/N = 1.659
(S/N) dB = 10 log101.659 = 2.2 dB
S/N = 2.2 dB
Problem 1.3
In a communication channel, the bandwidth is 10 MHz and SNR is 100.
(a) Determine the channel capacity.
(b) If SNR drops to 10, how much bandwidth is needed to achieve the same channel
capacity as in (a).
Solution:
Given, channel bandwidth = 10MHz and S/N = 100
Channel capacity is C = B log2 (1 + S/N) bps
C = 10 * 106 log2 (1 + 100)
C = 66.6 Mbps
If the SNR drops to 10, that is, S/N = 10, the bandwidth is
B = C/ log2(1 + S/N) = C/log2(1 + 10)
B = 66.6 * 106 / 3.47
B = 19.19 MHz
1.3.
Advantages
Users can move around freely within the area of the network with their laptops,
handheld devices, etc. and get an internet connection.
Users are also able to share files and other resources with other devices that are
connected to the network without having to be cabled to a port.
Not having to lay lots of cables and put those through walls etc. can be a considerable
advantage in terms of time and expense. It also makes it easier to add extra devices to
the network, as no new cabling is needed.
If you are a business such as a cafe, having a wireless network that is accessible to
customers can bring you extra business. Customers generally love wireless networks
because they are convenient.
Wireless networks can sometimes handle a larger amount of users because they are
not limited by a specific number of connection ports.
Instant transfer of information to social media is made much easier. For instance,
taking a photograph and uploading it to Facebook can generally be done much quicker
with wireless technology.
1.4.
Limitations
(a) Bandwidth
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
In wireless systems, delays of several seconds can occur, and links can be very
asymmetrical (i.e., the links offer different service quality depending on the
direction to and from the wireless device).
Applications must be tolerant and use robust protocols.
(f) Lower security, simpler to attack
Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio interface is
also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping.
Wireless access must always include encryption, authentication, and other
security mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to use.
1.5.
Applications
The following applications describe the need of wireless communications.
(a) Vehicles
Transmission of news, road conditions, weather, music via Digital Audio
Broadcasting (DAB)
Current position of the vehicle can be known via the Global Positioning
System (GPS)
Cars in the same area could build a local ad-hoc network to ensure a minimum
safe distance from other cars. This network could also be used to alert other
cars and hospitals in case of an accident.
(b) Emergencies and Natural Disasters
The condition of the patient can be transmitted to the hospital from the
ambulance itself. The hospital can then make the necessary arrangements to
speed up the network.
In case of disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, heavy rains, etc. most of the
wired networks and the infrastructure based networks completely fail. On
demand, ad-hoc networks are the only way for communication in such cases.
Ad-hoc wireless networks are also useful on the battlefield (in wars) as the
existent communication network might have already been destroyed (jammed)
by the enemy.
(c) Replacement of Fixed (Wired) Networks
Remote sensors used for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, etc. can be
wireless, this allows freedom from miles of cabling.
Instead of fixed networks, wireless networks can be used for information
display and enforcing security measures in historical monuments, as the
cabling required for the fixed network may cause damage to the monument.
(d) Businesses
A travelling salesman can have instant access to the companys database.
Thus, he can easily provide the latest product information to the customers.
Also, the managers can keep track of the performance of the salesman.
The laptop can truly be turned into a mobile device.
(e) Infotainment and Entertainment
Wireless networks can provide instant outdoor internet access.
Travel guides can push historical information about a building or a place on to
the users mobile devices such as a PDA or a mobile phone.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
Wireless networks can be used to set up ad-hoc gaming consoles during online
gaming competitions.
(f) Transport
Wireless communication could be used to create and co-ordinate car sharing
schemes amongst villages where public transport modes are not easily
available.
(g) Micro-Commerce
Small businesses in rural areas often have to travel significant distances to
markets or other places where they can distribute their goods, and hence they
cannot make arrangements in advance with the buyers.
Mobile phones could significantly change the logistical issues faced by traders
and home entrepreneurs, by providing affordable mobile-based ordering
systems and the ability to make more reliable and advance arrangements with
business partners or clients.
(h) Healthcare
New mobile services in rural areas could allow for better connectivityamong
rural communities.
Villages can now create networks to share and discuss health information and
advice.
(i) Education
Educational services could be provided to children in remote villages and
communities, particularly where personal computers or connections to the
Internet are not available.
Mobile phones could serve as an essential means for children to connect to
one another for educational and peer-learning activities.
These are particularly important for communities that are either nomadic or
transitional on account of displacements due to a natural disaster or for other
reasons.
1.6.
Wireless Media
Wireless means transmitting signals over invisible radio waves instead of
wires.
Garage door openers and television remote controls were the first wireless
devices to become a part of everyday life.
Even though many mobile and wireless devices are available, there will be
manymore in the future. There is no precise classification of such devices, by
size,shape, weight, or computing power.
Currently, laptops are considered the upper end of the mobile device range.
The following list gives some examples of mobile and wireless devices graded
by increasing performance (CPU, memory, display, input devices etc.).
However, there is no sharp line between the categories and companies tend to
invent more and more new categories.
1. Sensors: A very simple wireless device is represented by a sensor transmitting state
information. One example could be a switch sensing the office door. If the door is
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.7.
closed, the switch transmits this to the mobile phone inside the office which will not
accept incoming calls. Without user interaction, the semantics of a closed door is
applied to phone calls.
Embedded controllers: Many appliances already contain a simple or sometimes
more complex controller. Keyboards, mice, headsets, washing machines, coffee
machines, hair dryers and TV sets are just some examples. Why not have the hair
dryer as a simple mobile and wireless device (from a communication point of view)
that is able to communicate with the mobile phone? Then the dryer would switch off
as soon as the phone starts ringing that would be a nice application!
Pager: As a very simple receiver, a pager can only display short
text messages, has a tiny display, and cannot send any messages.
Pagers can even be integrated into watches. The tremendous
success of mobile phones has made the pager virtually redundant in
many countries. Short messages have replaced paging. The
situation is somewhat different for emergency services where it may be
necessary to page a larger number of users reliably within short time.
Mobile phones: The traditional mobile phone only had a simple black and white text
display and could send/receive voice or short messages. Today,mobile phones migrate
more and more toward PDAs. Mobile phones with fullcolor graphic display, touch
screen, and Internet browser are easily available.
Personal digital assistant: PDAs typically accompany a user and offersimple
versions of office software (calendar, note-pad, mail). The typicalinput device is a
pen, with built-in character recognition translating handwritinginto characters. Web
browsers and many other software packagesare available for these devices.
Pocket computer: The next steps toward full computers are pocket
computersoffering tiny keyboards, color displays, and simple versions of
programsfound on desktop computers (text processing, spreadsheets etc.).
Notebook/laptop: Finally, laptops offer more or less the same performanceas
standard desktop computers; they use the same software the only technicaldifference
being size, weight, and the ability to run on a battery. Ifoperated mainly via a sensitive
display (touch sensitive or electromagnetic),the devices are also known as notepads or
tablet PCs.
Frequency Spectrum
An ordered array of the components of an emission or wave is called spectrum.
A frequency spectrum is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from
zero to infinity.
10
Radio transmission can take place using many different frequency bands. Each frequency
band exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages. Figure above gives a rough overview
of the frequency spectrum that can be used for data transmission.The figure shows
frequencies starting at 300 Hz and going up to over 300 THz.
Directly coupled to the frequency is the wavelength via the equation: = c/f, where c
3108 m/s (the speed of light in vacuum) and f the frequency.
For traditional wired networks, frequencies of up to several hundred kHz are used for
distances up to some km with twisted pair copper wires, while frequencies of several
hundred MHz are used with coaxial cable (new coding schemes work with several
hundred MHz even with twisted pair copper wires over distances of some 100 m). Fiber
optics are used for frequency ranges of several hundred THz, but here one typically refers
to the wavelength which is, e.g., 1500 nm, 1350 nm etc. (infra red).
Radio transmission starts at several kHz, the very low frequency (VLF) range. These are
very long waves. Waves in the low frequency (LF) range are used by submarines,
because they can penetrate water and can follow the earths surface. Some radio stations
still use these frequencies, e.g., between 148.5 kHz and 283.5 kHz in Germany. The
medium frequency (MF) and high frequency (HF) ranges are typical for transmission
of hundreds of radio stations either as amplitude modulation (AM) between 520 kHz and
1605.5 kHz, as short wave (SW) between 5.9 MHz and 26.1 MHz, or as frequency
modulation (FM) between 87.5 MHz and 108 MHz. The frequencies limiting these
ranges are typically fixed by national regulation and, vary from country to country. Short
waves are typically used for (amateur) radio transmission around the world, enabled by
reflection at the ionosphere. Transmit power is up to 500 kW which is quite high
compared to the 1 W of a mobile phone.
As we move to higher frequencies, the TV stations follow. Conventional analog TV is
transmitted in ranges of 174230 MHz and 470790 MHz using the very high frequency
(VHF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF) bands. In this range, digital audio broadcasting
(DAB) takes place as well (223230 MHz and 14521472 MHz) and digital TV is
planned or currently being installed (470 862 MHz), reusing some of the old frequencies
for analog TV. UHF is also used for mobile phones with analog technology (450465
MHz), the digital GSM (890960 MHz, 17101880 MHz), digital cordless telephones
following the DECT standard (18801900 MHz), 3G cellular systems following the
UMTS standard (19001980 MHz, 20202025 MHz, 21102190 MHz) and many more.
VHF and especially UHF allow for small antennas and relatively reliable connectionsfor
mobile telephony.
Super high frequencies (SHF) are typically used for directed microwavelinks (approx.
240 GHz) and fixed satellite services in the C-band (4 and6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14
GHz), or Ka-band (19 and 29 GHz). Some systemsare planned in the extremely high
frequency (EHF) range which comes closeto infrared. All radio frequencies are regulated
to avoid interference, e.g., theGerman regulation covers 9 kHz275 GHz.
The next step into higher frequencies involves optical transmission, whichis not only used
for fiber optical links but also for wireless communications.Infrared (IR) transmission is
used for directed links, e.g., to connect differentbuildings via laser links. The most
11
Spread Spectrum
As the name implies, spread spectrum techniques involve spreading the
bandwidthneeded to transmit data.
12
Each channel has its own narrowband frequency of transmission. Guard spaces are
required between the channels to avoid adjacent channel interference.
Using FDM requires careful planning of the frequencies. Also, we can see that the
quality of channels 3 and 4 is too bad (due to narrowband interference) to recover the
data.
In order to solve these problems, we can apply spread spectrum to all the six channels.
As shown in figure 1.5 below, the narrow band signals for each of the channels are
converted to broadband signals.
13
DSSS Transmitter
The DSSS receiver is comparatively more complex than the transmitter (refer figure
1.8).
The received signal is first converted to the baseband signal by the demodulator.
Additional mechanisms also need to be applied as data may be distorted due to noise
and multipath propagation.
14
The low pass filtered signal is now applied to a correlator; the correlator performs two
steps which need precise synchronization with the sender.
Firstly, the signal is once again XORed with a chipping sequence to generate
products; this chipping sequence is the same as that used by the transmitter to
transmit the data.
The integrator then adds all the products.
For each bit period, the output of the integrator is fed to the decision unit that decides
whether the user data is a binary 0 or 1.
Disadvantages of DSSS
1.10.
15
Slow Hopping
Several user bits transmitted at the
same frequency.
Therefore, td>tb
Provides lesser resistance to
narrowband interference.
Fast Hopping
Several frequencies may be used to
transmit a single user bit.
Better resistance against narrowband
interference and frequency selective
fading as compared to slow hopping.
Better security as compared to slow
hopping.
Comparatively costlier with smaller
tolerances.
Very tight synchronization is required.
Used by Bluetooth.
The simplified block diagram of FHSS transmitter is shown in the figure 1.10.
The user data is first converted to a narrowband signal using digital modulation (FSK
or BPSK).
Frequency hopping is then performed using the hopping sequence. The hopping
sequence is applied to the frequency synthesizer that generates the corresponding
carrier frequencies.
Analog modulation is then applied to shift the narrowband frequency by the carrier
frequency.
16
As shown in figure 1.11, the reverse process needs to be applied at the receiver.
The received signal is first subject to a demodulation process to generate the
narrowband signal. The same hopping sequence used to spread the data needs to be
regenerated at the receiver and then applied to the frequency synthesizer.
The narrowband signal is then demodulated again to get the user data.
Disadvantages of FHSS
17
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
1.11.
DSSS
FHSS
Implementation is complex.
At any time, it uses all of the total
available bandwidth.
It provides better security; without
knowing the spreading code it is
very hard to detect the signal.
More resistant to frequency selective
fading.
More
resistant
to
multipath
propagation.
Simple to implement.
It uses only a small portion of the
available bandwidth at any time.
Signals are easier to detect.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum or no
interference.
In wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions viz.
space, time, frequency, and code.
The goal of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code to each
communication channel for maximum medium utilization and minimum interference.
18
Figure 1.12
Space
Division
Multiplexing
The interference range of one space should not overlap with the interference
range of the other space.
The space between interference ranges is called as the guard space.
Thus, SDM separates the senders via a space wide enough to avoid
interference.
Advantages: Very simple and easy to implement.
Disadvantages: Clearly causes a waste of space. If multiple users want to use
the space for communication, other multiplexing schemes like FDM, TDM or
CDM need to be applied.
19
20
Modulation Techniques
Modulation is the process of converting analog or digital information to a
waveform suitable for transmission over a given medium.
Consider a cosine function g(t) = At cos(2 ftt+ t).
This function has three parameters: amplitude At, frequency ft, and phase
twhich may be varied in accordance with data or another modulating signal.
For digital modulation, which is the main topic in this section, digital data (0
and 1) is translated into an analog signal (baseband signal).
Digital modulation is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a
medium that only allows for analog transmission.
21
22
23
24
The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One and still common in
cellular telephones in the U.S offers a transmission speed of only up to 14.4
Kbps in its single channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-channel form.
CDMA2000 and Wideband CDMA deliver data many times faster.
25
In a CDMA system, the same frequency can be used in every cell, because
channelization is done using the pseudo-random codes.
Reusing the same frequency in every cell eliminates the need for frequency
planning in a CDMA system.
CDMA systems use the soft hand off, which is undetectable and provides a
more reliable and higher quality signal.
If a carrier is sensed, the station waits for the transmission in progress to finish
before initiating its own transmission. In other words, CSMA is based on the
principle "sense before transmit" or "listen before talk".
Multiple access means that multiple stations send and receive on the medium.
Transmissions by one node are generally received by all other stations
connected to the medium.
Non-persistent
Non persistent CSMA is a non aggressive transmission algorithm.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
26
When the sender (station) is ready to transmit data, it senses the transmission
medium for idle or busy.
If idle, then it transmits immediately. If busy, then it waits for a random period
of time (during which it does not sense the transmission medium) before
repeating the whole logic cycle (which started with sensing the transmission
medium for idle or busy) again.
This approach reduces collision, results in overall higher medium throughput
but with a penalty of longer initial delay compared to 1persistent.
P-persistent
This is an approach between 1-persistent and non-persistent CSMA access
modes.
When the sender (station) is ready to transmit data, it senses the transmission
medium for idle or busy.
If idle, then it transmits immediately. If busy, then it senses the transmission
medium continuously until it becomes idle, then transmits a frame
with probabilityp.
If the sender chooses not to transmit (the probability of this event is 1-p), the
sender waits until the next available time slot.
If the transmission medium is still not busy, it transmits again with the same
probability p. This probabilistic hold-off repeats until the frame is finally
transmitted or when the medium is found to become busy again (i.e. some
other sender has already started transmitting their data).
In the latter case the sender repeats the whole logic cycle (which started with
sensing the transmission medium for idle or busy) again.
p-persistent CSMA is used in CSMA/CA systems including Wi-Fi and
other packet radio systems.
(f) OFDMA
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a form of signal
modulation that divides a high data rate modulating stream placing them onto
many slowly modulated narrowband close-spaced subcarriers, and in this way
is less sensitive to frequency selective fading.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing or OFDM is a modulation
format that is being used for many of the latest wireless and
telecommunications standards.
OFDM has been adopted in the Wi-Fi arena where the standards like 802.11a,
802.11n, 802.11ac and more. It has also been chosen for the cellular
telecommunications standard LTE / LTE-A, and in addition to this it has been
adopted by other standards such as WiMAX and many more.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has also been adopted for a
number of broadcast standards from DAB Digital Radio to the Digital Video
Broadcast standards, DVB.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
27
OFDM Spectrum
28
29
CHAPTER 2
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Cellular Concept
The cellular concept refers to a system-level concept that focuses on substituting a
30
other users .But as frequency is a scarce resource the number of concurrent users per
cell is also very limited.
2. Less transmission power
While power aspects are not a big problem for base stations, they are indeed a
problematic for mobile stations.A receiver far away from the base station would need
much more transmit power than the current few watts.But energy is a serious problem
for mobile handling devices.
3. Local interference only
Having long distances between sender and receiver results even more interference
problems.With the small cell mobile stations and base stations only have to deal with
local interference.
4. Robustness
Cellular systems are decentralized and so,more robust again the failure of single
components.If one antenna fails,this only influences communication within small
area.
Disadvantages:
1. Infrastructure needed
Cellular systems need a complex infrastructure to connect all base stations .This
includes many antennas, switches for forwarding, location registers to find a mobile
station etc,which make the whole system quite expensive.
2. Handover needed
The mobile station has to perform a handover when changing from one cell to
another.Depending on the cell size and the speed of movement,this can happen quite
soon
3. Frequency planning
To avoid interference, frequency spectrum should be distributed properly with a very
less range of frequency spectrum.
Some important cellular concepts are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Frequency Reuse
Channel Assignment Strategies
Handoff strategies
Interference and system capacity
1. Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse, or, frequency planning, is a technique of reusing frequencies and
channels within a communication system to improve capacity and spectral
efficiency.
Frequency reuse is one of the fundamental concepts on which commercial
wireless systems are based that involve the partitioning of an RF radiating area
into cells.
The increased capacity in a commercial wireless network, compared with a
networkwith a single transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio
frequency can bereused in a different area for a completely different transmission.
31
32
interference below the tolerated limit is used. However, the cluster size N cannot
take on any value and is given only by the following equation
K = i2+ij+j2
Where, K = number of cells per cluster or cluster size
i = number of cells (centre to centre) along any chain of hexagon
j = number of cells (centre to centre) in 60 degree counterclockwise of i.
==================================================================
===
1. Prove that for a hexagonal geometry, the cell cluster size is given by the relation
K = i2+ij+j2
Where, K = number of cells per cluster or cluster size
i = number of cells (centre to centre) along any chain of hexagon
j = number of cells (centre to centre) in 60 degree counterclockwise of i.
Solution:
Rules for determining the nearest co-channel cell using Shift parameters (i, j) to lay out
a cellular system is:
Step 1: Move i cells along any side of ahexagon.
Step 2: Turn 60 degrees anticlockwise
Step 3: Move j cells.
where i and j are shift parameters and can haveinteger value 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on
Let R be the distance from the centre of a regular hexagon and any of its vertex. A regular
hexagon is one whose sides are also equal to R.
Let d be the distance between the centres of two adjacent regular hexagons.
From the geometry of the figure, OA = R and AB = R/2, OQ = d
Then, OB = OA + AB = R + R/2 = 3R/2
Then, in right-angled OAP, OP = OA sin 600 = (3/2)R
Let the distance between the centres of two adjacent hexagonal cells, OQ, be denoted by d.
Then,
OQ = OP + PQ (where OP = PQ)
Therefore, d = [(3/2)R + (3/2)R ]
Hence, d= 3 R
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
33
Let d be the distance between two adjacent cells and D be the distance from the centre of the
cell under consideration to the centre of nearest co-channel cell.
Using Cosine formula for XYZ in figure above, we have,
XZ2 = XY2 + YZ2 2*XY*YZ cos 1200
D2 = ( i*d )2 + ( j*d )2 2*(i*d)*(j*d)cos 1200
D2 = ( i*d )2 + ( j*d )2 2*(i*d)*(j*d) (-1/2)
D2 = ( i*d )2 + ( j*d )2 + (i*d)*(j*d)
D2 = d2( i2 + j2 + i*j)
We have d= 3 R
Therefore, D2 = 3*R2 * ( i2 + j2 + i*j)
Area of small hexagon, Asmallhexagon = (33/2) *R2
By joining the centres of the six nearest neighboring cochannel cells, a large hexagon is
formed with radius equal to D, which is also the cochannel cell separation.
34
With the rapid increase in number of mobile users, the mobile service providers had to
follow strategies which ensure the effective utilization of the limited radio spectrum.
With increased capacity and low interference being the prime objectives,a frequency
reuse scheme was helpful in achieving these objectives.
A variety ofchannel assignment strategies have been followed to aid these objectives.
Channelassignment strategies are classified into two types: fixed and dynamic, as
discussedbelow.
35
In such cases the MSC supervises the borrowing process and ensures that none of
the calls in progress are interrupted.
36
37
(a) Coverage area of the cell = Total service area / Number of cells = 140km2/ 7 = 20km2
(b) Number of voice channels per cell = 30% of original channels = 0.3 * 40 = 12
channels/cell.
Total number of voice channels available in cellular system
= Number of channels per cell * Number of cells in the service area
= 12 * 7 = 84 channels
(c) There is significant increase in the number of available channels in the cellular
system. This means, the system capacity is increased.
7. Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4 have to be replicated in order to
approximately cover the entire service area of 1765km 2 with the adequate number of
uniform-sized cells of 7km2 each.
Solution:
Size of the cluster, K = 4..(given)
Area of the cell, Acell = 7km2....(given)
Total service area, Asystem = 1765km2......(given)
Area of cluster, Acluster = K * Acell = 4 * 7 = 28km2.
Number of clusters in service area = Asystem / Acluster = 1765 / 28 = 63.
Hence, the number of times the cluster of size 4 has to be replicated is 63.
(a) Assume a cellular system of 32 cells with a cell radius of 1.6 km, a total frequency
bandwidth that supports 336 traffic channels, and a reuse factor of N = 7. If there are
32 total cells, what geographic area is covered, how many channels are there per cell,
and what is the total system capacity? Assume regular hexagonal cellular topology.
(b) Let the cell size be reduced to the extent that the same area as covered in Part (a) with
128 cells. Find the radius of the new cell, and new system capacity.
(c) Comment on the results obtained.
Solution:
(a) Total number of cells in service area = 32..(given)
Radius of a cell, R = 1.6km.(given)
The area of a hexagon of radius R = (33/2) *R2.
Acell= (33/2) * (1.6 km)2 = 6.65 km2 ,
Hence, the total service area covered = Acell * No. of cells in total area = 6.65 X 32 =
213km2.
Total number of available traffic channels = 336 ...(given)
Frequency reuse pattern (cluster size) = 7 ..(given)
Hence, the number of channels per cell = 336/7 = 48
Total system capacity = Number of channels per cell * Number of cells = 48*32 =
1536 channels.
(b) Total number of available cells = 128 ..(given)
Total service area = 213km2.(Part a)
Area of a regular hexagonal area = Total service area / Number of cells = 213/128 =
1.66km2.
The area of a hexagon of radius R = (33/2) *R2.
Therefore, (33/2) *R2 = (33/2) *R2
i.e. R = 0.8km
Hence, radius of new smaller cell, R = 0.8km.
New system capacity = number of channels per cell * number of cells
= 48 * 128 = 6144 channels
Hence, new system capacity = 6144 channels.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
38
(c) It is observed that as the number of cells are increased from 32 to 128 to cover the
same service area (213km2), the size of the cell (in terms of radius R) is decreased
from 1.6km to 0.8km. Keeping the identical number of channels (48) per cell, the total
system capacity is increased from 1536 channels to 6144 channels.
9. A mobile communication system is allocated RF spectrum of 25 MHz and uses RF
channel bandwidth of 25 kHz so that a total number of 1000 voice channels can be
supported in the system.
(a) If the service area is divided into 20 cells with a frequency reuse factor of 4, compute
the system capacity.
(b) The cell size is reduced to the extent that the service area is now covered with 100
cells. Compute the system capacity while keeping the frequency reuse factor as 4.
(c) Consider the cell size is further reduced to the extent that the service area is now
covered with 700 cells with the frequency reuse factor as 7. Compute the system
capacity.
(d) Comment on the results obtained.
Solution:
Number of available voice channels, N = 1000.
Therefore, each cluster can serve 1000 active users simultaneously.
In other words, the capacity of a cluster = 1000.
(a) To compute the system capacity for given K
Number of cells covering the area = 20 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 4 (given)
Number of clusters = number of cells / cluster size = 20 / 4 = 5
Thus, the number of channels in 5 clusters = 1000 * 5 = 5000
Hence, the system capacity = 5000 users.
(b) To compute new system capacity for increased number of cells
Number of cells covering the area = 100 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 4 (given)
Number of clusters = number of cells / cluster size = 100 / 4 = 25
Thus, the number of channels in 5 clusters = 1000 *25 = 25000
Hence, the system capacity = 25000 users.
(c) To compute new system capacity for increased number of cells and cluster size
Number of cells covering the area = 700 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 7 (given)
Number of clusters = number of cells / cluster size = 700 / 7 = 100
Thus, the number of channels in 5 clusters = 1000 *100 = 100,000
Hence, the system capacity = 100,000 users.
(d) It is observed that as the number of cells covering a given service area is increased,
the number of clusters having all available number of channels increases. This results
into significant increase in the number of active users in the system or the system
capacity. Hence, it is concluded that frequency reuse enhances system capacity.
10. Determine the distance from the nearest cochannel cell for a cell having a radius of
0.64km and a cochannel reuse factor of 12.
Solution:
The radius of a cell, R = 0.64km
(given)
The cochannel reuse factor, q = 12
(given)
To determine the distance from the nearest cochannel cell, D
We know that, q = D/R
Therefore, D = q * R = 12 * 0.64 = 7.68km
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
39
When a user moves from one cell to the other, to keep the communication between
the user pair, the user channel has to be shifted from one BS to the other without
interrupting the call, i.e., when a MS moves into another cell, while the conversation
is still in progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new FDD channel
without disturbing the conversation. This process is called as handoff.
A schematicdiagram of handoff is given in Figure below.
40
Handoff in CDMA: In spread spectrum cellular systems, the mobiles share the same
channels in every cell. The MSC evaluates the signal strengths received from different
BS for a single user and then shifts the user from one BS to the other without actually
changing the channel. These types of handoffs are called as soft handoff as there is
no change in the channel.
Handoff Priority
While assigning channels using either FCA or DCA strategy, a guard channel conceptmust be
followed to facilitate the handoffs. This means, a fraction of total availablechannels must be
kept for handoff requests. But this would reduce the carriedtraffic and only fewer channels
can be assigned for the residual users of a cell. Agood solution to avoid such a dead-lock is to
use DCA with handoff priority (demandbased allocation).
A Few Practical Problems in Handoff Scenario
a) Different speed of mobile users: With the increase of mobile users in urban areas,
microcells are introduced in the cells to increase the capacity. The users with high
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
41
speed frequently crossing the micro-cells become burdened to MSC as it has to take
care of handoffs. Several schemes thus have been designed to handle the simultaneous
traffic of high speed and low speed users while minimizing the handoff intervention
from the MSC, one of them being the Umbrella Cell approach. This technique
provides large area coverage to high speed users while providing small area coverage
to users traveling at low speed. By using different antenna heights and different power
levels, it is possible to provide larger and smaller cells at a same location. The
umbrella cell is co-located with few other microcells. The BS can measure the speed
of the user by its short term average signal strength and decides which cell to handle
that call. If the speed is less, then the corresponding microcell handles the call so that
there is good corner coverage. This approach assures that handoffs are minimized for
high speed users and provides additional microcell channels for pedestrian users.
b) Cell dragging problem: This is another practical problem in the urban area with
additional microcells. For example, consider there is a LOS path between the MS and
BS1 while the user is in the cell covered by BS2. Since there is a LOS with the BS1,
the signal strength received from BS1 would be greater than that received from BS2.
However, since the user is in cell covered by BS2, handoff cannot take place and as a
result, it experiences a lot of interferences. This problem can be solved by judiciously
choosing the handoff threshold along with adjusting the coverage area.
c) Inter-system handoff: If one user is leaving the coverage area of one MSC and is
entering the area of another MSC, then the call might be lost if there is no handoff in
this case too. Such a handoff is called inter-system handoff and in order to facilitate
this, mobiles usually have roaming facility.
4. Interference & System Capacity
Susceptibility
and
interference
problems
associated
with
mobile
communicationsequipment are because of the problem of time congestion within the
electromagneticspectrum. It is the limiting factor in the performance of cellular
systems.
This interference can occur from clash with another mobile in the same cell or
because of a call in the adjacent cell. There can be interference between the base
stations operating at same frequency band or any other non-cellular systems energy
leaking inadvertently into the frequency band of the cellular system.
If there is an interference in the voice channels, cross talk is heard will appear as noise
between the users.
The interference in the control channels leads to missed and error calls because of
digital signaling. Interference is more severe in urban areas because of the greater RF
noise and greater density of mobiles and base stations.
The interference can be divided into 2 parts: co-channel interference and adjacent
channel interference.
Co-channel interference (CCI)
42
43
5. Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is a method in which congested (heavy traffic) cell is subdivided into
smaller cells, and each smaller cell is having its own base station with reduction in
antenna height and transmitter power.
The original congested bigger cell is called macrocell and the smaller cells are
called microcells.
Capacity of cellular network can be increased by creating micro-cells within the
original cells which are having smaller radius than macro-cells, therefore, the
capacity of a system increases because more channels per unit area are now
available in a network.
Figure below shows a cell splitting in which a congested cell, divided into smaller
microcells, and the base stations are put up at corners of the cells.
The micro-cells are to be added in such a way in order to the frequency reuse plan
of the system should be preserved. For micro-cells, the transmit power of
transmitter should be reduced, and each micro-cell is having half the radius to that
of macro-cell.
Therefore, transmit power of the new cells can be calculated by analyzing the
received power at the cell boundaries. This is required in order to make sure that
frequency reuse plan for the micro-cells is also working the same way as it was
working for the macro-cells.
6. Sectoring
Another way of improving the channel capacity of a cellular system is to decrease
the D/R ratio while keeping the same cell radius.
Improvement in the capacity can be accomplished by reducing the number of cells
in a cluster, hence increasing the frequency reuse.
To achieve this, the relative interference must be minimized without decreasing
the transmit power.
For minimizing co-channel interference in a cellular network, a single omnidirectional antenna is replaced with multiple directional antennas, with each
transmitting within a smaller region. These smaller regions are called sectors and
minimizing co-channel interference while improving the capacity of a system by
using multiple directional antennas is called sectoring.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
44
45
Drawbacks:
Poor Voice Quality
Poor Battery Life
Large Phone Size
No Security
Limited Capacity
Poor Handoff Reliability
2G Technology:
2G technology refers to the 2nd generation which is based on GSM.
It was launched in Finland in the year 1991 and used digital signals.
Its data speed was upto 64kbps.
Features include:
It enables services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS (multimedia
message).
It provides better quality and capacity.
Drawbacks:
2G requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network
coverage in any specific area,digital signals would weak.
These systems are unable to handle complex data such as Videos.
2.5G Technology
2.5G is a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generation of mobile
telephony.
It is sometimes described as 2G Cellular Technology combined with GPRS.
Features Includes:
Phone Calls
Send/Receive E-mail Messages
Web Browsing
Speed : 64-144 kbps
Camera Phones
3G Technology:
3G technology refer to third generation which was introduced in year 2000s.
Data Transmission speed increased from 144kbps- 2Mbps.
Typically called Smart Phones and features increased its bandwidth and data transfer
rates to accommodate web-based applications and audio and video files.
Features Include:
Providing Faster Communication
Send/Receive Large Email Messages
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
46
47
The basic difference between 3G and 4G is in data transfer and signal quality.
Technology
3G
4G
3.1 MB/sec
100 MB/sec
Internet Services
Broadband
Ultra Broadband
Mobile TV Resolution
Low
High
Bandwidth
5-20 MHz
100MHz
Frequency
1.6-2 GHz
2-8 GHz
5.8 Mbps
14 Mbps
5G Technology:
It refers to short name of fifth Generation which was started from late 2010s.
Complete wireless communication with almost no limitations.
It is highly supportable to WWWW (Wireless World Wide Web).
Features Include:
High Speed, High Capacity
5G technology providing large broadcasting of data in Gbps .
Multi Media Newspapers, watch T.V programs with the clarity as to that of an HD
Quality.
Faster data transmission that of the previous generations.
Large Phone Memory, Dialing Speed, clarity in Audio/Video.
Support interactive multimedia ,voice, streaming video, Internet and other
5G is More Effective and More Attractive.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
48
Technology
1G
Deployment
1970/1984
Bandwidth
2G/2.5G
3G
4G
1980/1999
1990/2002
2000/2010
2014/2015
2kbps
14-64kbps
2mbps
200mbps
>1gbps
Technology
Analog
cellular
Digital
cellular
Broadband
width/
CDMA/ IP
technology
Unified IP &
seamless combo of
LAN/WAN/WLAN/P
AN
4G+WWW
W
(Wireless
WWW)
Service
Mobile
telephony
Digital
voice,short
messaging
Integrated
high
quality
audio,
video
&
data
Dynamic information
access,
variable
devices
Dynamic
information
access,
variable
devices
with
AI
capabilities
Multiplexing
FDMA
TDMA/C
DMA
CDMA
CDMA
CDMA
Switching
Circuit
Circuit/circ
uit
for
access
network&a
ir interface
Packet
except for
air
interface
All packet
All packet
Core
network
PSTN
PSTN
Packet
network
Internet
Internet
Handoff
Horizontal
Horizontal
Horizontal
Horizontal&Vertical
Horizontal&
Vertical
5G
49
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is
implemented globally.
GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25
kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and
1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz
and 1900 MHz.
GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.
GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique
for transmitting signals.
GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120
Mbps of data rates.
Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210
countries throughout the world.
GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other
streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.
Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
Improved spectrum efficiency
International roaming
Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
High-quality speech
Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services
Support for new services
2.3.1 GSM Architecture
Figure below gives a simplified overview of the GSM system as specifiedin ETSI (1991b). A
GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio subsystem (RSS), the network and
switching subsystem (NSS), and the operationsubsystem (OSS).
50
Radio subsystem
As the name implies, the radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specificentities, i.e., the
mobile stations (MS) and the base station subsystem (BSS).Figure above shows the
connection between the RSS and the NSS via the A interface(solid lines) and the connection
to the OSS via the O interface (dashedlines). The A interface is typically based on circuitswitched PCM-30 systems(2.048 Mbit/s), carrying up to thirty 64 kbit/s connections, whereas
the O interfaceuses the Signalling System No. 7 (SS7) based on X.25 carrying management
datato/from the RSS.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
51
Base station subsystem (BSS): A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each
controlled by a base station controller (BSC). The BSS performs all functions
necessary to maintain radio connections to an MS, coding/decoding of voice, and rate
adaptation to/from the wireless network part. Besides a BSC, the BSS contains several
BTSs.
Base transceiver station (BTS): A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e., antennas,
signal processing, amplifiers necessary for radio transmission. A BTS can form a
radio cell or, using sectorized antennas, several cells and is connected to MS via the
Um interface (ISDN U interface for mobile use), and to the BSC via the Abis
interface. The Um interface contains all the mechanisms necessary for wireless
transmission (TDMA, FDMA etc.). The Abis interface consists of 16 or 64 kbit/s
connections. A GSM cell can measure between some 100 m and 35 km depending on
the environment (buildings, open space, mountains etc.) and also expected traffic.
Base station controller (BSC): The BSC basically manages the BTSs. It reserves
radio frequencies, handles the handover from one BTS to another within the BSS, and
performs paging of the MS. The BSC also multiplexes the radio channels onto the
fixed network connections at the A interface.
Mobile station (MS): The MS comprises all user equipment and software needed for
communication with a GSM network. An MS consists of user independent hard- and
software and of the subscriber identity module (SIM), which stores all user-specific
data that is relevant to GSM. While an MS can be identified via the international
mobile equipment identity (IMEI), a user can personalize any MS using his or her
SIM, i.e., user-specific mechanisms like charging and authentication are based on the
SIM, not on the device itself. Device-specific mechanisms, e.g., theft protection, use
the device specific IMEI. Without the SIM, only emergency calls are possible. The
SIM card contains many identifiers and tables, such as card-type, serial number, a list
of subscribed services, a personal identity number (PIN), a PIN unblocking key
(PUK), an authentication key Ki, and the international mobile subscriber identity
(IMSI). The PIN is used to unlock the MS. Using the wrong PIN three times will lock
the SIM. In such cases, the PUK is needed to unlock the SIM. The MS stores dynamic
information while logged onto the GSM system, such as, e.g., the cipher key Kcand
the location information consisting of a temporary mobile subscriber identity
(TMSI) and the location area identification (LAI). Typical MSs for GSM 900 have
a transmit power of up to 2 W, whereas for GSM 1800 1 W is enough due to the
smaller cell size.
52
Mobile services switching center (MSC): MSCs are high-performance digital ISDN
switches. They set up connections to other MSCs and to the BSCs via the A interface,
and form the fixed backbone network of a GSM system. Typically, an MSC manages
several BSCs in a geographical region. A gatewayMSC (GMSC) has additional
connections to other fixed networks, such asPSTN and ISDN. Using additional
interworking functions (IWF), an MSC can also connect to public data networks
(PDN) such as X.25. An MSC handles all signaling needed for connection setup,
connection release and handover of connections to other MSCs. The standard
signaling system No. 7 (SS7) is used for this purpose. SS7 covers all aspects of
control signaling for digital networks (reliable routing and delivery of control
messages, establishing and monitoring of calls). Features of SS7 are number
portability, free phone/toll/collect/credit calls, call forwarding, three-way calling etc.
An MSC also performs all functions needed for supplementary services such as call
forwarding, multi-party calls, reverse charging etc.
Home location register (HLR): The HLR is the most important database in a GSM
system as it stores all user-relevant information. This comprises static information,
such as the mobile subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN), subscribed services (e.g.,
call forwarding, roaming restrictions, GPRS), and the international mobile
subscriber identity (IMSI). Dynamic information is also needed, e.g., the current
location area (LA) of the MS, the mobile subscriber roaming number (MSRN),
the current VLR and MSC. As soon as an MS leaves its current LA, the information in
the HLR is updated. This information is necessary to localize a user in the worldwide
GSM network. All these user-specific information elements only exist once for each
user in a single HLR, which also supports charging and accounting. HLRs can
manage data for several million customers and contain highly specialized data bases
which must fulfill certain real-time requirements to answer requests within certain
time-bounds.
Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR associated to each MSC is a dynamic
database which stores all important information needed for the MS users currently in
the LA that is associated to the MSC (e.g., IMSI, MSISDN, HLR address). If a new
MS comes into an LA the VLR is responsible for, it copies all relevant information for
this user from the HLR. This hierarchy of VLR and HLR avoids frequent HLR
updates and long-distance signaling of user information.
Operation subsystem
The third part of a GSM system, the operation subsystem (OSS), contains thenecessary
functions for network operation and maintenance. The OSS possessesnetwork entities of its
own and accesses other entities via SS7 signaling. The following entities have been defined:
Operation and maintenance center (OMC): The OMC monitors and controls all
other network entities via the O interface (SS7 with X.25). Typical OMC management
functions are traffic monitoring, status reports of network entities, subscriber and
security management, or accounting and billing. OMCs use the concept of
telecommunication management network (TMN) as standardized by the ITU-T.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
53
Authentication centre (AuC): As the radio interface and mobile stations are
particularly vulnerable, a separate AuC has been defined to protect user identity and
data transmission. The AuC contains the algorithms for authentication as well as the
keys for encryption and generates the values needed for user authentication in the
HLR. The AuC may, in fact, be situated in a special protected part of the HLR.
Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database for all IMEIs, i.e., it stores
all device identifications registered for this network. As MSs are mobile, they can be
easily stolen. With a valid SIM, anyone could use the stolen MS. The EIR has a
blacklist of stolen (or locked) devices. In theory an MS is useless as soon as the owner
has reported a theft. Unfortunately, the blacklists of different providers are not usually
synchronized and the illegal use of a device in another operators network is possible.
The EIR also contains a list of valid IMEIs (white list), and a list of malfunctioning
devices (gray list).
54
55
56
Logical Channels
Many types of logical channels exists, each designed to carry a different message to or
from an MS.
All information to and from an MS must be formatted correctly, so that the receiving
device can understand the meaning of different bits in the message.
For example, in the burst used to carry traffic, some bits may represent the speech
or data itself, while others may be used as a training sequence.
There are several types of burst.
The relationship between bursts and logical channels is shown in the figure below.
57
CONTROL CHANNELS
When an MS is switched on, it searches for a BTS to connect to.
The MS scans the entire frequency band, or, optionally, uses a list containing the
allocated carrier frequencies for this operator.
When the MS finds the strongest carrier, it must then determine if it is a control
channel.
It does so by searching for a particular logical channel called Broadcast Control
CHannel (BCCH).
A frequency carrying BCCH contains important information for an MS, including e.g.
the current LA identity, synchronization information and network identity.
Without such information, an MS cannot work with a network.
This information is broadcast at regular intervals, leading to the term Broadcast
CHannel (BCH) information.
58
59
TRAFFIC CHANNELS
Once call set-up procedures have been completed on the control physical channel, the
MS tunes to a traffic physical channel.
It uses the Traffic CHannel (TCH) logical channel. There are two types of TCH:
Full rate (TCH): transmits full rate speech (13 kbits/s). A full rate TCH occupies one
physical channel.
Half rate (TCH/2): transmits half rate speech (6.5 kbits/s). Two half rate TCH's can
share one physical channel, thus doubling the capacity of a cell.
2.3.6 GSM Frame Structure
The GSM frame structure is designated as hyperframe, superframe, multiframe and
frame. The minimum unit being frame (or TDMA frame) is made of 8 time slots.
One GSM hyperframe is composed of 2048 superframes.
Each GSM superframe is composed of multiframes (either 26 or 51 as described
below).
Each GSM multiframe is composed of frames (either 51 or 26 based on multiframe
type).
Each frame is composed of 8 time slots.
Hence there will be total of 2715648 TDMA frames available in GSM and the same
cycle continues.
As shown in the figure, there are two variants to multiframe structure.
26 frame multiframe - Called traffic multiframe, composed of 26 bursts in a duration
of 120ms, out of these 24 are used for traffic, one for SACCH and one is not used.
51 frame multiframe- Called control multiframe, composed of 51 bursts in a duration
of 235.4 ms.
This type of multiframe is divided into logical channels.
These logical channels are time sheduled by BTS. Always occur at beacon frequency
in time slot 0, it may also take up other time slots if required by system for example
2,4,6.
60
2.4 GPRS
General Packet Radio System also known as GPRS is a third-generation step toward
internet access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile
Communications Internet Protocol as it keeps the users of this system online, allows to make
voice calls, and access internet on-the-go. Even Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio access.
GPRS also permits the network operators to execute an Internet Protocol (IP) based core
architecture for integrated voice and data applications that will continue to be used and
expanded for 3G services.
GPRS supersedes the wired connections, as this system has simplified access to the packet
data networks like the internet. The packet radio principle is employed by GPRS to transport
user data packets in a structure way between GSM mobile stations and external packet data
networks. These packets can be directly routed to the packet switched networks from the
GPRS mobile stations.
In the current versions of GPRS, networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) like the global
internet or private/corporate intranets and X.25 networks are supported.
The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute
(ETSI), the European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI).
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
61
Key Features
Following three key features describe wireless packet data:
The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only
one click away.
An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment;
rather, GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.
An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for
3G systems EDGE and WCDMA.
Goals of GPRS
GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the following
goals:
Open architecture
Consistent IP services
Same infrastructure for different air interfaces
Benefits of GPRS
In contrast to this, with packet switched services, billing can be based on the amount of
transmitted data. The advantage for the user is that he or she can be "online" over a long
period of time but will be billed based on the transmitted data volume.
GPRS has opened a wide range of unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber. Some of
the characteristics that have opened a market full of enhanced value services to the users.
Below are some of the characteristics:
62
Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on
the move.
Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of
location and without a lengthy login session.
Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current
location.
Using the above three characteristics varied possible applications are being developed to offer
to the mobile subscribers. These applications, in general, can be divided into two high-level
categories:
Corporation
Consumer
These two levels further include:
Communications - E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/internet access, etc.
Along with the above applications, non-voice services like SMS, MMS and voice calls are
also possible with GPRS. Closed User Group (CUG) is a common term used after GPRS is in
the market, in addition, it is planned to implement supplementary services, such as Call
Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), and Call Forwarding on Mobile subscriber Not Reachable
(CFNRc), and closed user group (CUG).
2.4.1 GPRS Architecture
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional
entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation
GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with
the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same
air interface resources concurrently.
GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to
effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.Following is the GPRS
Architecture diagram:
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
63
64
The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for the
users both inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
65
application communicates via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out
through the gateway GPRS. The packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN
use the GPRS tunneling protocol, this way the IP addresses located on the external side of the
GPRS network do not have deal with the internal backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.
SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control (LLC)
combination used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to reduce the
load on the radio channel. A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by LLC and
the same LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then, the
old LLC link is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25.
Services are provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.
Comparison of GSM & GPRS
GSM
GPRS
Data Rates
9.6 Kbps
9.6 to 171Kbps
Modulation Technique
GMSK
GMSK
Billing
Duration of connection
Type of Connection
2.5 EDGE
Stands for Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution.
It is a 2.5G telecommunication network.
Channel bandwidth is 200 kHz.
Data rate of 384Kbps is supported.
Uses 8-PSK (octal phase shift keying).
Can handle data subscribers 3 times more than in GPRS.
Sometimes called as Enhanced GPRS.
2.5.1 EDGE Architecture
The EDGE architecture consists of three main components:
1. GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)
2. SGSN(Serving GPRS Support Node)
3. PCU(Packet Control Unit)
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)
Acts as a gateway to the world outside the network.
Manages the working between EDGE network and external packet switched networks
to which mobile devices are connected.
A gateway, router, and firewall together form GGSN.
It first verifies whether a user is active or not, then only it forwards the packets
outside or inside the GGSN network.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
66
67
68
Because of the shortage of radio resources, some radio channels should be released
when subscribers do not send or receive data, but PPP connection is maintained
continuously.
The PCF can shield radio mobility for the upper-layer services via handoff.
69
CDMA Vs GSM
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
70
Feature
CDMA
GSM
Stands for
Storage Type
Internal Memory
SIM (subscriber
module) Card
Global
market share
25%
Dominance
Dominant
standard
worldwide except the U.S.
Data transfer
EVDO/3G/4G/LTE
GPRS/E/3G/4G/LTE
Network
Every
cell
has
a
corresponding network tower,
which serves the mobile
phones in that cellular area.
International
roaming
Less Accessible
Most Accessible
Frequency
band
Multiple (850/900/1800/1900
MHz)
Handset specific
Network
service
identity
75%
CHAPTER 3
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
71
Wireless Local Loop (WLL) is a system that connects subscribers to the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) using radio signals as a substitute for copper for
all or part of the connection between the subscriber and the switch.
Sometimes called radio in the loop (RITL) or fixed-radio access (FRA).
This includes cordless access systems, proprietary fixed radio access, and fixed
cellular systems.
Using a wireless link shortens the construction period and also reduces installation
and operating costs.
WLL will be implemented across five categories of wireless technology.
They are digital cellular, analog cellular, PCN/PCS, CT-2/DECT, and proprietary
implementations.
Each of these technologies has a mix of strengths and weaknesses for WLL
applications.
72
Some of the services include personal numbers assigned to individuals rather than
telephones, call completion regardless of locations ("find me"), calls to the PCS
customer that can be paid by either the caller or the receiver, and call management
services that give the called party greater control over incoming calls.
PCS/PCN has the advantage of being designed specifically to provide WLL by public
wireless operators.
The main weakness of PCS/PCN is that it is not yet commercially available.
3.1.4
73
74
Advantages of WLL
1. Cost: Wireless systems are less expensive than wired systems.
2. Installation Time: WLL systems can be installed rapidly. Only problem is selection
of frequency band and authorization to use it. Once it is obtained, it can be easily
installed.
3. Mobile Cellular Technology: Current cellular systems are too expensive and do not
provide sufficient facilities to act as a realistic alternative to WLL systems. A major
advantage of WLL over mobile cellular is that, since the subscriber unit is fixed, the
subscriber can use a directional antenna pointed at the base station antenna, providing
improved signal quality in both the directions.
Limitations of WLL
1. Spectrum
Management of spectrum is the main issue in WLL system because WLL can
be deployed only in licensed bands.
2. Service Quality
Reliability and fraud immunity must be fulfilled to provide good quality
service.
3. Network Planning
Since subscriber units are fixed, antenna height and where to place this unit is
the question in installation of WLL.
4. Economics
The major cost in wire-line is physical aspects and installation, whereas in
WLL, it is electronics.
3.4 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
The term Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) describes the various
equipment and interconnecting facilities that provide phone service to the public.
The PSTN began in the United States in 1878 with a manual mechanical switchboard
that connected different parties and allowed them to carry on a conversation.
Today, the PSTN is a network of computers and other electronic equipment that
converts speech into digital data and provides a multitude of sophisticated phone
features, data services, and mobile wireless access.
At the core of the PSTN are digital switches. The term "switch" describes the ability
to cross-connect a phone line with many other phone lines and switching from one
connection to another.
The PSTN is well known for providing reliable communications to its subscribers.
3.4.1General PSTN Hierarchies
Depending on geographical region, PSTN nodes are sometimes referred to by different
names. The three node types we discuss in this chapter include:
End Office (EO): Also called a Local Exchange. The End Office provides network access
for the subscriber. It is located at the bottom of the network hierarchy.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
75
Tandem: Connects EOs together, providing an aggregation point for traffic between them. In
some cases, the Tandem node provides the EO access to the next hierarchical level of the
network.
Transit: Provides an interface to another hierarchical network level. Transit switches are
generally used to aggregate traffic that is carried across long geographical distances.
76
77
The International network consists of digital switching nodes, which are located in
each country and act as international gateways to destinations outside of their
respective countries.
These gateways adhere to the ITU international standards to ensure interoperability
between national networks.
The international switch also performs the protocol conversions between national and
international signaling
3.4.3 PSTN Hierarchy in the United Kingdom
End Offices are referred to as Digital Local Exchanges (DLE). A fully meshed tandem
network of Digital Main Switching Units (DMSU) connects the DLEs. Digital International
Switching Centers (DISC) connect the DMSU tandem switches for international call
connections.
78
3.6 Lines
Lines are used to connect the subscriber to the CO, providing the subscriber access
into the PSTN. The following sections describe the facilities used for lines, and the
access signaling between the subscriber and the CO.
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
79
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.6.6
3.7 Trunks
80
Digital trunks may be either four-wire (twisted pairs) or fiber optic medium for higher
capacity.
T1 and E1 are the most common trunk types for connecting to End Offices. North
American networks use T1, and European networks use E1.
On the T1/E1 facility, voice channels are multiplexed into digital bit streams using
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
TDM allocates one timeslot from each digital data stream's frame to transmit a voice
sample from a conversation.
Each frame carries a total of 24 multiplexed voice channels for T1 and 31 channels for
E1.
The T1 frame uses a single bit for framing, while E1 uses a byte.
81
82
At such speeds, LMDS may be the key to bringing multimedia data, supporting voice
connections, the Internet, videoconferencing, interactive gaming, video streaming and
other high-speed data applications to millions of customers worldwide over the air.
As with other wireless networks, LMDS technology offers the advantage that it can be
deployed quickly and relatively inexpensively. New market entrants who do not have
an existing network like incumbent's copper wires or fibers - can rapidly build an
advanced wireless network and start competing. LMDS is also attractive to incumbent
operators who need to complement or expand existing networks.
83
Applications
Weather forecasting: several satellites deliver pictures of the earth.
Radio and TV broadcast satellites: hundreds of radio and TV programs are
available via satellite. This technology competes with cable in many places as
it is cheap
Military satellites
Satellites for navigation and localization (e.g., GPS). Almost all ships and
aircraft rely on GPS in addition to traditional navigation systems.
Inter Satellite
Link (ISL)
Gateway
GWL
Link
Mobile
User
Link
(MUL)
footpri
nt
(GWL)
ISDN
PSTN
GSM
User data
84
Due to its high altitude, satellite transmissions can cover a wide area over the
surface of the earth.
Each satellite is equipped with various "transponders" consisting of a
transceiver and an antenna tuned to a certain part of the allocated spectrum.
The incoming signal is amplified and then rebroadcast on a different
frequency.
Most satellites simply broadcast whatever they receive, and are often referred
to as "bent pipes".
These were traditionally used to support applications such as TV broadcasts
and voice telephony.
In recent times, the use of satellites in packet data transmission has been on
the rise. They are typically used in WAN networks where they provide
backbone links to geographically dispersed LAN's and MAN's.
Figure above shows a classical scenario for satellite systems supporting global
mobile communication. Depending on its type, each satellite can cover a
certain area on the earth with its beam (the so-called footprint.
Within the footprint, communication with the satellite is possible for mobile
users via a mobile user link (MUL) and for the base station controlling the
satellite and acting as gateway to other networks via the gateway link (GWL).
Satellites may be able to communicate directly with each other via intersatellite links (ISL).
This facilitates direct communication between users within different footprints
without using base stations or other networks on earth.
Saving extra links from satellite to earth can reduce latency for data packets
and voice data.
Some satellites have special antennas to create smaller cells using spot beams
CHAPTER 4
WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (WLAN)
4.1 Introduction
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
85
A WLAN is a wireless computer network that connects two or more devices using a
wireless distribution within a limited area, such as in a school or an office building.
It provides the facility of mobility to its users within the coverage area.
IEEE and ETSI support wireless networks.
IEEE gives 802.11 standards for WLAN for both 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands.
ETSI gives HiperLAN Types 1 and 2 standards for 5GHz band only.
Mainly used for LAN extension, cross-building interconnect, ad hoc networking and
nomadic access.
86
Temporary Infrastructure
In this method, the mobile users set up a temporary infrastructure. But this method is
complicated and it introduces overheads. It is useful only when there is a small
number of a mobile user.
87
Equipment
Description
Wireless
Network
Adapter
Wireless
Switch
Wireless
Router
Wireless
88
Repeaters
Wireless
Bridge
89
Limitations:
1. Only few devices can be connected to each other.
2. It works in a small compact area.
3. There is no way to manage connections.
4. There is no way to connect with bigger networks like LAN or Internet
(b) Infrastructure BSS
An infrastructure BSS depends on a fixed device called an AP.
It consists of a group of client devices and a single AP.
AP is linked to the wired LAN and provides services to the client devices
wirelessly.
The area covered by an AP is known as BSS.
90
For example, in a college, various service sets may exist, like group of teachers or
group of students.
2.
91
92
IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY)
specifications for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer
communication in the 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and
maintained by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).
The fundamental block of the IEEE 802.11 architecture is BSS. It is a collection of
stations that are controlled by a single function, either Distributed Coordination Function
(DCF) or Point Coordination Function (PCF). BSS covers a geographical area called
Basic Service Area (BSA). A single BSS can be used to set an ad hoc network, which is a
group of stations that communicate without adding an infrastructure network.
4.8.1 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Protocol Architecture
Figure above shows that the physical layer of 802.11 is divided into two different
layers: PMD (Physical Medium Dependent) and PLCP (Physical Layer Convergence
Protocol).
The PMD layer offers physical medium-dependent access for infrared, FHSS
(Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) and DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum) communication.
PLCP provides a medium-independent interface for the MAC (Medium Access
Control) layer, which manages the package transport from one network interface to
another through a shared transmission channel.
FHSS uses the frequency hopping mechanism to avoid collisions with other WLAN
devices. The baseband is divided into 79 channels, which are changed in a random
order.
DSSS uses the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) mechanism, which enables
multiple transmissions on the same frequency channel for more than one transmitting
device. The different signals are multiplexed with the help of device-unique codes and
are de-multiplexed at the receivers side.
93
80
16
12
4
16
synchronization SFD PLW PSF HEC
PLCP preamble
variable
payload
bits
PLCP header
Figure shows a frame of the physical layer used with FHSS. The frameconsists of two basic
parts, the PLCP part (preamble and header) and the payloadpart. While the PLCP part is
always transmitted at 1 Mbit/s, payload, i.e.MAC data, can use 1 or 2 Mbit/s.
The fields of the frame fulfill the following functions:
Synchronization: The PLCP preamble starts with 80 bit synchronization,which is a 010101...
bit pattern. This pattern is used for synchronization ofpotential receivers and signal detection
by the CCA.
Start frame delimiter (SFD): The following 16 bits indicate the start of theframe and
provide frame synchronization. The SFD pattern is0000110010111101.
PLCP_PDU length word (PLW): This first field of the PLCP header indicatesthe length of
the payload in bytes including the 32 bit CRC at the endof the payload. PLW can range
between 0 and 4,095.
PLCP signalling field (PSF): This 4 bit field indicates the data rate of the payload either 1 or
2 Mbit/s.
Header error check (HEC): Finally, the PLCP header is protected by a16 bit checksum.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
94
128
16
8
8
16 16
synchronization SFD signalservicelength HEC
PLCP preamble
variable
payload
bits
PLCP header
Figure shows a frame of the physical layer using DSSS. The frame consistsof two basic parts,
the PLCP part (preamble and header) and the payloadpart. While the PLCP part is always
transmitted at 1 Mbit/s, payload, i.e., MACdata, can use 1 or 2 Mbit/s.
The fields of the frame have the following functions:
Synchronization: The first 128 bits are not only used for synchronization,but also gain
setting, energy detection (for the CCA), and frequency offsetcompensation.
Start frame delimiter (SFD): This 16 bit field is used for synchronization atthe beginning of
a frame and consists of the pattern 1111001110100000.
Signal: Originally, only two values have been defined for this field to indicatethe data rate of
the payloadeither 1 or 2 Mbit/s.
Service: This field is reserved for future use.
Length: 16 bits are used in this case for length indication of the payloadin microseconds.
Header error check (HEC): Signal, service, and length fields are protectedby this
checksum.
(c) IR PHY Layer
The IEEE 802.11 physical layer specification uses Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
totransmit data using IR radiation. PPM varies the position of a pulse in order to
transmitdifferent binary symbols. Extensions 802.11a and 802.11b address only microwave
transmissionissues. Thus, the IR physical layer can be used to transmit information either at 1
or 2Mbps. For transmission at 1 Mbps, 16 symbols are used to transmit 4 bits of
information,whereas in the case of 2 Mbps transmission, 2 data bits are transmitted using four
pulses.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
95
Figure shows a frame of the physical layer using IR.The fields of the frame have the
following functions:
SYNC: Contains alternating pulses in consecutive time slots. It is used for
receiversynchronization. The size of this field is between 57 and 73 bits.
Start frame delimiter (SFD): A 4-bit field that defines the beginning of a frame. It takes the
value1001.
Data rate: A 3-bit field that takes the values 000 and 001 for 1 and 2 Mbps, respectively.
DC level adjustment: Consists of a 32-bit pattern that stabilizes the signal at the receiver.
Length: A 16-bit field containing the length of the MPDU in milliseconds.
CRC: A 16-bit frame check sequence (FCS) used for error detection.
MPDU(Payload): The 802.11 MAC protocol data unit to be sent. The size of this field
ranges from 0to 4096 octets.
4.8.3 IEEE 802.11 MACLayer
The data link layer within 802.11 consists of two sublayers: logical link control(LLC) and
media access control (MAC). 802.11 uses the same 802.2 LLCand 48-bit addressing as the
other 802 LAN, allowing for simple bridging fromwireless to IEEE wired networks, but the
MAC is unique to WLAN. The sublayerabove MAC is the LLC, where the framing takes
place. The LLC inserts certainfields in the frame such as the source address and destination
address at the headend of the frame and error handling bits at the end of the frame.
The 802.11 MAC is similar in concept to 802.3, in that it is designed tosupport multiple users
on a shared medium by having the sender sense the mediumbefore accessing it. For the 802.3
Ethernet LAN, the carrier sense multiple accesswith collision detection (CSMA/CD) protocol
regulates how Ethernet stationsestablish access to the network and how they detect and
handle collisions thatoccur when two or more devices try to simultaneously communicate
over theLAN. In an 802.11 WLAN, collision detection is not possible due to the
near/farproblem. To detect a collision, a station must be able to transmitand listen at the same
time, but in radio systems the transmission drowns out theability of a station to hear a
collision.
96
While hidden terminals may cause collisions, the next effect only causesunnecessary delay.
Now consider the situation that B sends something to A andC wants to transmit data to some
other mobile phone outside the interferenceranges of A and B. C senses the carrier and detects
that the carrier is busy (Bssignal). C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as
being idleagain. But as A is outside the interference range of C, waiting is not
necessary.Causing a collision at B does not matter because the collision is too weak
topropagate to A. In this situation, C is exposed to B.
Near and far terminals scenario
A and B are both sending with the same transmission power.
As the signal strength decreases proportionally to the square of the distance, Bs signal
drowns out As signal.
As a result, C cannot receive As transmission.
Now think of C acts as a base station coordinating media access.
In this case, terminal B would already drown out terminal A on the physical layer.
C in return would have no chance of applying a fair scheme as it would only hear B.
The near/far effect is a severe problem.
All signals should arrive at the receiver with more or less the same strength.
Otherwise a person standing closer to somebody could always speak louder than a
person further away.
Precise power control is needed to receive all senders with the same strength at a
receiver.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
97
CSMA/CA
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) is the channel
access mechanism used by most wireless LANs in the ISM bands. A channel access
mechanism is the part of the protocolwhich specifies how the node uses the medium : when
to listen, when to transmit...
The basic principles of CSMA/CA are listen before talk and contention. This is
an asynchronous message passing mechanism (connectionless), delivering a best effort
service, but no bandwidth and latency guarantee. It's main advantages are that it is suited for
network protocols such as TCP/IP, adapts quite well with the variable condition of traffic and
is quite robust against interferences.
CSMA/CA is fundamentally different from the channel access mechanism used by cellular
phone systems.
CSMA/CA is derived from CSMA/CD (Collision Detection), which is the base of Ethernet.
The main difference is the collision avoidance: on a wire, the transceiver has the ability to
listen while transmitting and so to detect collisions (with a wire all transmissions have
approximately the same strength). But, even if a radio node could listen on the channel while
transmitting, the strength of its own transmissions would mask all other signals on the air. So,
the protocol can't directly detect collisions like with Ethernet and only tries to avoid them.
Multiple access with collision avoidance
Multiple access with collision avoidance (MACA) presents a simplescheme that solves the
hidden terminal problem, does not need a base station.
98
With MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a requestto send (RTS)
first. B receives the RTS that contains the name of sender andreceiver, as well as the length of
the future transmission. This RTS is not heardby C, but triggers an acknowledgement from B,
called clear to send (CTS). TheCTS again contains the names of sender (A) and receiver (B)
of the user data,and the length of the future transmission. This CTS is now heard by C and
themedium for future use by A is now reserved for the duration of the transmission.After
receiving a CTS, C is not allowed to send anything for the durationindicated in the CTS
toward B. A collision cannot occur at B during data transmission,and the hidden terminal
problem is solved provided that thetransmission conditions remain the same. (Another
station could move into thetransmission range of B after the transmission of CTS.)
Still, collisions can occur during the sending of an RTS. Both A and C couldsend an RTS that
collides at B. RTS is very small compared to the data transmission,so the probability of a
collision is much lower. B resolves this contentionand acknowledges only one station in the
CTS (if it was able to recover the RTSat all). No transmission is allowed without an
appropriate CTS. This is one ofthe medium access schemes that is optionally used in the
standard IEEE 802.11.
MACA also help to solve the exposed terminal problem
With MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first containing the name of the receiver (A)
and the sender (B).
C does not react to this message as it is not the receiver, but A acknowledges using a
CTS which identifiesB as the sender and A as the receiver of the following data
transmission.
C does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection range.
C can start its transmission assuming it will not cause a collision at A.
The problem with exposed terminals is solved without fixed access patterns or a base
station.
802.11MAC Frame Types
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
99
The IEEE 802.11 WLAN specification defines various frame types than Ethernet for
wireless communications, as well as managing and controlling wireless connections.
The types of frames in the IEEE 802.11 specification are management, control, and
data frames.
Management Frame
Used for station association and disassociation with the AP.
Used for timing and synchronization.
Used for authentication and de-authentication.
Control Frame
Used for handshaking during contention period (CP).
Used for the positive acknowledgement during the CP.
Used for contention free period (CFP).
Data Frame
Used for the transmission of data during the CP and CFP.
Can be combined with polling and acknowledgements during the CFP.
802.11 MAC Frame
Protocol Version: Indicates the version of the 802.11 protocol. A receiving station
uses this value to determine whether it supports the version of the protocol of the
received frame.
Type and Subtype: Determine the function of the frame management, control, or
data. The type and subtype fields for each frame type determine the specific function
to perform.
100
To DS and From DS: Indicates whether the frame is destined to or exiting from the
distributed system (DS). All frames of wireless stations that are associated with an
access point (infrastructure mode) will have one of the DS bits set. The interpretation
of the Address fields depends on the setting of these bits.
More Fragments: Indicates whether there are more subsequent fragments for a
particular management or data frame are to follow. Control frames are not
fragmented, hence this bit is always set to 0 for control frames.
Retry: Indicates whether the management or data frame is being retransmitted.
Power Management: Indicates whether the sending wireless station is in active or
power-saving mode.
More Data: Used to inform a wireless station which is in power-saving mode that the
access point has more frames to send to it. Also used by an access points to indicate
that additional broadcast or multicast frames are to follow. This bit is only being used
in management and data frames; hence this bit is always set to 0 for control frames.
Protected: Indicates whether encryption and authentication are used for the frame.
Control frames may not be encrypted; hence this bit is always set to 0 for control
frames.
Order: Indicates that all received data frames must be processed in sequence.
The Duration/ID field is used in all control frames to indicate the remaining duration
needed to receive the next frame transmission.
An 802.11 frame may contain up to 4 Address fields.
BSS Identifier (BSSID): Used to uniquely identify each BSS (WLAN). When the
frame is from a wireless station in an infrastructure BSS, the BSSID is the MAC
address of the access point; when the frame is from a wireless station in an IBSS (adhoc) mode, the BSSID is a locally administered MAC address generated with a 46-bit
random number, and is generated by the wireless station that initiated the IBSS.
Source Address (SA): Indicates the 48-bit MAC address of the source station that
created and transmitted the frame (source of the transmission). Only 1 station can be
the source of a frame.
Destination Address (DA): Indicates the 48-bit MAC address of the destination
station to receive the frame (recipient).
Transmitter Address (TA): Indicates the 48-bit MAC address of the wireless
interface that transmitted the frame onto the wireless medium. The TA is only being
used in wireless bridging.
Receiver Address (RA): Indicates the 48-bit MAC address of the (immediate)
wireless station which should receive and process the frame. If it is a wireless station,
the RA is the DA. For frames destined to a node on an Ethernet network connected to
an access point, the RA is the wireless interface of the access point, and the DA may
be a node attached to the Ethernet.
The Sequence Control field contains the following 2 subfields:
Fragment Number: Indicates the number of each frame of a fragmented upper-layer
packet. The 1st fragment will have a fragment number of 0, and each subsequent
101
102
An open system allows any client to authenticate as long as it conforms to any MAC
address filter policies that may have been set. All authentication packets are
transmitted without encryption.
Shared key authentication, on the other hand, requires Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP) be enabled, and identical WEP keys on the client and AP (for more
information on WEP keys, see below). The initiating endpoint requests a shared key
authentication, which returns unencrypted challenge text (128 bytes of randomly
generated text) from the other endpoint. The initiator encrypts the text and returns the
data.
4.10.2 Encryption
The 802.11 specification provides data privacy with the WEP algorithm. WEP is based on
theRC4 symmetric stream cipher. The symmetric nature of RC4 requires that matching
WEP keys, either 40 or 104 bits in length, must be statically configured on client devices
and access points (APs). WEP was chosen primarily because of its low computational
overhead. Although 802.11-enabled PCs are common today, this situation was not the
case back in 1997. The majority of WLAN devices were application-specific devices
(ASDs). Examples of ASDs include barcode scanners, tablet PCs, and 802.11-based
phones.
To avoid the Electronic Code Book (ECB) mode of encryption, WEP uses a 24-bit IV,
which is concatenated to the keybefore being processed by the RC4 cipher. Figure below
shows a WEP-encrypted frame, including the IV.
The IV must change on a per-frame basis to avoid IV collisions. IV collisions occur when
the same IV and WEP key are used, resulting in the same key stream being used to
encrypt aframe. This collision gives attackers a better opportunity to guess the plaintext
data byseeing similarities in the ciphertext. The point of using an IV is to prevent this
scenario, so it is important to change the IV often. Most vendors offer per-frame IVs on
their WLAN devices.The 802.11 specification requires that matching WEP keys
bestatically configured on bothclient and infrastructure devices.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
103
In addition to data encryption, the 802.11 specification provides for a 32-bit value that
functions as an integrity check for the frame. This check tells the receiver that the frame
has arrived without being corrupted during transmission. It augments the Layer 1 and
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
104
Layer 2 frame check sequences (FCSs), which are designed to check for transmissionrelated errors.
The ICV is calculated against all fields in the frame using a cyclic redundancy check
(CRC)-32 polynomial function. The sender calculates the values and places the result in
the ICV field. The ICV is included in the WEP-encrypted portion of the frame, so it is not
plainly visible to eavesdroppers. The frame receiver decrypts the frame, calculates an ICV
value, and compares what it calculates against what has arrived in the ICV field. If the
values match, the frame is considered to be genuine and un-tampered with. If they don't
match, the frame is discarded.
4.11 Latest Developments in IEEE 802.11 Standards
802.11a:
o Operates in the 5.15GHz to 5.35GHz radio spectrum.
o Speed: Up to 54Mbps (actual throughput is closer to 22Mbps)
o Range: 50 feet
o Less prone to interference.
o More expensive.
o Because 802.11b and 802.11a use different radio technologies and portions of
the spectrum, they are incompatible with one another.
802.11b:
o Operates in the 2.4GHz radio spectrum.
o Speed: Up to 11Mbps
o Range: 100 feet
o Prone to interference (it shares airspace with cell phones, Bluetooth, security
radios, and other devices).
o Least expensive wireless LAN specification.
o The Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) has done its part by
certifying hundreds of products to make sure they work together.
802.11g:
o Operates in the 2.4GHz radio spectrum.
o Speed: Up to 54Mbps
o Range: 100 feet
o Prone to interference (it shares airspace with cell phones, Bluetooth, security
radios, and other devices).
802.11n (Draft):
o Operates in the 2.4 or 5GHz radio spectrum
o Speed: Up to 700Mbs
o Range: 50 feet
105
o Because 802.11b and 802.11g use the same radio technologies and portions of
the spectrum, they are compatible with one another. But because the 802.11n
standard has yet to be ratified by WECA, it may not be completely compatible
with 802.11b and 802.11g.
IEEE 802.11ad
The IEEE 802.11ad also referred to as WiGig is really a relatively new standard
published in December 2012. It specification adds a "fast session transfer" feature. To
provide for optimal performance and range criteria, the IEEE 802.11ad provides the
capability to move in between the bands ensuring that computing devices are usually
"best connected."
IEEE 802.11ae
The IEEE 802.11ae aims to introduce a mechanism for prioritization of management
frames. A protocol to communicate management frame prioritization policy is
specified in this standard.
IEEE 802.11ac
Among the important standards currently under development is IEEE 802.11ac. This
standard is anticipated to be published by the end of 2014. It's expected to supply a
multi-station WLAN throughput of around 7 Gbps and an individual link throughput
of at the least 500 Mbps. That is accomplished by extending the air interface concepts
which are embraced by 802.11n like wider RF bandwidth (up to 160 MHz), more
MIMO spatial streams (up to 8), multi-user MIMO, and high-density modulation.
IEEE 802.11af
106
The IEEE 802.11af, also known as White-fi is meant to operate in the TV White Spaces,
that will be the spectrum already allocated to the TV broadcasters however, not used at a
certain location and time frame. It uses cognitive radio technology to spot white spaces it
could use. However, this cognitive technology will soon be predicated on an
officialgeolocation database. This database can provide information on which frequency,
at what time and under what conditions networks may operate.
IEEE 802.11ah
The IEEE 802.11ah is directed at developing an international WLAN network which
will allow user to gain access to sub carrier frequencies below 1GHz in the ISM band.
One of the goals of this standard is to ensure that the transmission, ranges up to 1 km.
It will even enable devices on the basis of the IEEE 802.11 standards to access short
burst data transmissions like meter data. Additionally it can provide improve coverage
range that will allow new applications such as, for example wide area based sensor
networks, sensor backhaul systems and potential Wi-Fi off-loading functions to
emerge. This standard is under development and is predicted to be finalized by 2016.
IEEE 802.11ai
The IEEE 802.11ai is a forthcoming standard predicted to be finalized by 2015. It'll
add a fast initial link setup (FILS) that might enable an STA to reach a protected link
setup that will be significantly less than 100 ms.An effective link setup process will
then permit the STA to send IP traffic with a valid IP address through the AP.
IEEE 802.11mc
The IEEE 802.11mc resembles the IEEE 802.11m and is also scheduled to appoint an
operating group with the job of maintenance of the standard around 2015.
IEEE 802.11aj
The IEEE 802.11aj is intended provide modifications to the IEEE 802.11ad Physical
(PHY) layer and the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer for operation in the
Chinese Milli-Meter Wave (CMMW) frequency bands like the 59-64 GHz frequency
band. The amendment can also be meant to maintain backward compatibility with
802.11ad when it operates in the 59-64 GHz frequency band. The amendment shall
also define modifications to the PHY and MAC layers allowing the operation in the
107
Chinese 45 GHz frequency band. This standard is scheduled to be finalized by the end
of 2016.
IEEE 802.11aq
The WLAN is fast evolving and is no more one, where stations are merely looking for
just usage of internet service. This creates opportunities to supply new services,
because the IEEE 802.11 standard must be enhanced to advertise and describe these
new services.
The IEEE 802.11aq can provide mechanisms that will assist in pre-association
discovery of services by addressing the methods to advertise their existence and
enable delivery of information that describes them. These records about services will
be made available ahead of association by stations operating on IEEE 802.11 wireless
networks. This standard is scheduled to be published by 2015.
CHAPTER 5
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
108
802.2 LLC
LLC stands for logical link control.
It is the interface between the MAC sub layer and the network layer.
Facilitates multiplexing mechanism, flow control and Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ) error management mechanism.
109
110
111
2. Scatternet
Scatternet is formed by combining various piconets.
A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and
deliver the message to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This
node is also called bridge slave.
Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
A station cannot be a master in two piconets.
112
113
2. TCP/UDP/IP
The TCP/UDP/IP standards are defined to operate in Bluetooth units allowing them to
communicate with other units connected, for instance, to the Internet. Hence, the
Bluetooth unit can act as a bridge to the Internet. The TCP/IP/PPP protocol
configuration is used for all Internet Bridge usage scenarios in Bluetooth 1.0 and for
114
Bluetooth does not require a clear line of sight between the synced devices. This
means that the devices need not be facing each other, and it is also possible to
carry out transfers when both the devices are in separate rooms.
115
The fact that this technology requires no cables and wires is something that has
made it so popular. With so many devices engulfing our lives today, the need for
clutter-free technology is becoming more intense.
The maximum range that it offers is 100 meters, but this range is not the same for
all similar connections. It depends on the nature of the devices and the version that
they operate upon.
The processing power and battery power that it requires in order to operate is very
low. This makes it an ideal tool for so many electronic devices, as the technology
can be implemented pretty much anywhere.
One major advantage is its simplicity of use. Anyone can figure out how to set up
a connection and sync two devices with ease. Moreover, the technology is
completely free to use and requires no charges to be paid to any service provider.
The chances of other wireless networks interfering with yours are very low. This
is because of the low-powered wireless signals that the technology adopts, and
also because of something known as frequency hopping.
Though the transfer speeds are impressive at around 25 Mbps, certain other
technologies like Wi-Fi Direct can offer speeds up to 250 Mbps. This is an area
that can be improved upon in the near future.
Even though the security is good, it is even better on Wi-Fi Direct. This can be
accounted to the (comparatively) larger range of Bluetooth and also to the lack of
a line of sight. Someone who knows how to hack such networks can do so
eventually.
The battery usage during a single transfer is negligible, but there are some people
who leave the device switched on in their devices. This inevitably eats into the
battery of these devices, and lowers the battery life considerably.
116
This model defines the architecture into two parts; namely: node structural blocks part
and node management part.
The node structural blocks part is mainly composed of three layers; Frame
Convergence sublayer (FCSL), MAC sublayer, and Physical (PHY) layer.
The HR - WPANs standard is defined only for the MAC and PHY layers where each
layer implements a subset of the standard and offers services to its upper layers and
gets services from its lower layers.
The FCSL interfaces the MAC sublayer to the upper layers such as the networking
layer, application layer, etc.
The management part of a HR - WPAN node consists of the Device Management
Entity (DME).
The DME facilitates the functionalities of the MAC and PHY layers and other upper
layers.
Gathering layer-dependent status from the management entities of different layers and
setting the values of layer- specific parameters are examples of DME duties.
PHY Layer
The physical layer contains two functional entities; namely: PHY function and PLME
function.
The PHY layer services are provided to the MAC sublayer through the PHYs SAP.
The main tasks of the PHY layer are the activation and deactivation of the radio
transceiver, Link Quality Indication (LQI), Clear Channel Assessment (CCA), and
transmitting as well as receiving data packets over the physical medium.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
117
The DME is interfaced to the MAC sublayer and the PHY layer through designated
Service Access Points (SAPs) of the MAC subLayer Management Entity (MLME)
and the PHY Layer Management Entity (PLME) respectively.
MAC Layer
The MAC sublayer of the HRWPANs is designed to achieve a set of goals. These
goals are: Supporting fast connection time, Ad hoc networks topology, QoS support,
dynamic node membership, efficient data transfer, and secure data communication.
The MAC sublayer achieves these goals through two services: the MAC data service
and the MAC management service.
For data communication, the MAC sublayer communicates with the FCSL through
the MAC SAP and being serviced by the PHY layer through the PHY SAP. The
management entity of the MAC sublayer; MAC sublayer Management Entity
(MLME) communicates with the DME through the MLME Service Access Point
(SAP) (MLME-SAP).
The features of the MAC sublayer are beacon management, channel access control
through the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
scheme, collision free channel time allocation for management information and data
communication, frame validation, acknowledged frame delivery and node association
and disassociation.
5.6 LR-WPAN (ZigBee) IEEE 802.15.4 Standard
ZigBee technology is a low data rate, low power consumption, low cost, wireless networking
protocol targeted towards automation and remote control applications. ZigBee is expected to
provide low cost and low power connectivity for equipment that needs battery life as long as
several months to several years but does not require data transfer rates as high as those
enabled by Bluetooth. In addition, ZigBee can be implemented in mesh networks largerthan
is possible with Bluetooth. ZigBee compliant wireless devices are expected to transmit 10-75
meters, depending on the RF environment and the power output consumption required for a
given application, and will operate in the unlicensed RF worldwide(2.4GHz global, 915MHz
Americas or 868 MHz Europe). The data rate is 250kbps at 2.4GHz, 40kbps at 915MHz and
20kbps at 868MHz.
The main features of this standard are network flexibility, low cost, very low power
consumption, and low data rate in an adhoc self-organizing network among inexpensive
fixed, portable and moving devices. It is developed for applications with relaxed throughput
requirements which cannot handle the power consumption of heavy protocol stacks.
5.6.1 Components of LR-WPAN
A ZigBee system consists of several components.
The most basic is the device. A device can be a full-function device (FFD) or reducedfunction device (RFD).
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
118
A network shall include at least one FFD, operating as the PAN coordinator.
The FFD can operate in three modes: a personal area network (PAN) coordinator, a
coordinator or a device.
An RFD is intended for applications that are extremely simple and do not need to
send large amounts of data.
An FFD can talk to RFDs or FFDs while an RFD can only talk to an FFD.
In mesh and tree topologies, the Zigbee network is extended with several routers wherein the
coordinator is responsible for staring them. These structures allow any device to
communicate with any other adjacent node for providing redundancy to the data. If any node
fails, the information is routed automatically to otherdevice by these topologies. As the
redundancy is the main factor in industries, hence mesh topology is mostly used.
In a cluster-tree network, each cluster consists of a coordinator with leaf nodes, and these
coordinators are connected to the parent coordinator that initiates the entire network.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
119
120
121
can have up to 240 Application Objects (APOs), that is, user defined application modules
which are part of a ZigBee application. The ZDO defines the role of the device, initiates and
responds to binding requests and establishes a secure relationship between devices. The APS
offers an interface to data and security services to the APO sand ZDO.
5.7 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
A wireless sensor network (WSN) (sometimes called a wireless sensor and actor
network (WSAN)) are spatially distributed autonomoussensors to monitor physical or
environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound, pressure, etc. and to
cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main location.
5.7.1 Components of WSN
Sensor: It is a transducer that converts physical phenomenon e.g. heat, light, motion,
vibration, and sound into electrical signals.
Sensor node: It is the basic unit in sensor network that contains on-board sensors,
processor, memory, transceiver, and power supply.
Sensor network: It consists of a large number of sensor nodes deployed either inside
or very close to the sensed phenomenon.
5.7.2 WSN Vs Ad hoc Networks
WSN
Ad Hoc Networks
122
123
124
The power unit and the power generator are a key element in the sensor structure.
The power unit is responsible to provide the electrical power needed by the other units
in the system.
Since the power generator usually consists of batteries, such devices have limited
amount of energy available, thereby limiting the lifetime of the node.
125
This protocol stack combines power and routing awareness, integrates data with
networking protocols, communicates power efficiently through the wireless medium
and promotes cooperative efforts of sensor nodes.
The protocol stack consists of the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer, physical layer, power management plane, mobility management plane,
and task management plane.
Different types of application software can be built and used on the application layer
depending on the sensing tasks. This layer makes hardware and software of the lowest
layer transparent to the end-user.
The transport layer helps to maintain the flow of data if the sensor networks
application requires it.
The network layer takes care of routing the data supplied by the transport layer,
specific multi-hop wireless routing protocols between sensor nodes and sink.
The data link layer is responsible for multiplexing of data streams, frame detection,
Media Access Control (MAC) and error control. Since the environment is noisy and
sensor nodes can be mobile, the MAC protocol must be power aware and able to
minimize collision with neighbors broadcast.
The physical layer addresses the needs of a simple but robust modulation, frequency
selection, data encryption, transmission and receiving techniques.
In addition, the power, mobility, and task management planes monitor the power,
movement, and task distribution among the sensor nodes. These planes help the
sensor nodes coordinate the sensing task and lower the overall energy consumption.
126
Hybrid protocols incorporate both proactive and reactive concepts. They first
compute all routes and then improve the routes at the time of routing. e.g. Adaptive
Periodic TEEN (APTEEN) is an example of a reactive protocol.
127
128
detects if that route has broken, for example because two nodes in it have moved too far
apart.
DSR is based on source routing: when sending a packet, the originator lists in the header of
the packet the complete Sequence of nodes through which the packet is to be forwarded. Each
node along the route forwards the packet to the next hop indicated in the packets header, and
attempts to confirm that the packet was received by that next node; a node may confirm this
by means of a link-layer acknowledgment, passive acknowledgment, or network-layer
acknowledgment. If, after a limited number of local retransmissions of the packet, a node in
the route is unable to make this confirmation, it returns a ROUTE ERROR to the original
source of the packet, identifying the link from itself to the next node as broken. The sender
then removes this broken link from its Route Cache; for subsequent packets to this
destination, the sender may use any other route to that destination in its Cache, or it may
attempt a new Route Discovery for that target if necessary.
AODV Routing Protocol
AODV, an acronym for Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector routingprotocol, is a method of
routing messages between mobile computers. Itallows these mobile computers, or nodes, to
pass messages through theirneighbors to nodes with which they cannot directly communicate.
AODVdoes this by discovering the routes along which messages can be passed.AODV
makes sure these routes do not contain loops and tries to find theshortest route possible.
AODV is also able to handle changes in routesand can create new routes if there is an error.
Because of the limitedrange, each node can only communicate with the nodes next to it.
AODV is one of the most efficient routing protocols in terms ofestablishing the shortest path
and lowest power consumption. It is mainlyused for ad-hoc networks but also in wireless
sensor networks. It uses theconcepts of path discovery and maintenance. However, AODV
buildsroutes between nodes on-demand i.e. only as needed. So, AODVs primary objectives
are:
1. To broadcast discovery packets only when necessary,
2. To distinguish between local connectivity management (neighborhood detection) and
general topology maintenance,
3. To disseminate information about changes in local connectivity to those neighboring
mobiles nodes that are likely to need the information
AODV Characteristics
1. Will find routes only as needed.
2. Use of Sequence numbers to track accuracy of information.
3. Only keeps track of next hop for a route instead of the entireroute.
4. Use of periodic HELLO messages to track Neighbors.
Pros
1. The AODV routing protocol does not need any centraladministrative system to control the
routing process.
2. Reactive protocols like AODV tend to reduce the control trafficmessages overhead at the
cost of increased latency in finding newroutes.
Cons
1. It is possible that a valid route is expired.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
129
2. The performance of the AODV protocol without any misbehaving nodes is poor in larger
networks.
5.8 Comparison of 802.15 Standards
IEEE Standard
Topic
Operational
Spectrum
Physical Layer
Detail
Channel Access
Data Throughput
Modulation
Technique
Coverage
Approximate Range
Interference
Security
802.15.1
Bluetooth
2.4 GHz ISM Band
Number of
Channels
QoS needs
79
Applications
Ad hoc
Infrastructure
Price
FHSS
TDD
Up to 1Mbps
DPSK, GFSK
<10m
100m
Present
Less Secure
802.15.3
HR-WPAN
2.402-2.480 GHz
ISM band
QPSK, 16/32/64
-QAM scheme
CSMA-CA
>20Mbps
QPSK, 16/32/64
-QAM scheme
<10m
10m
Present
Very high level of
security including,
piracy, encryption
and digital service
certificate
5
802.15.4
LR-WPAN/ZigBee
2.4 GHz and
868/915MHz
DSSS with BPSK or
MSK
CSMA-CA
<0.25 Mbps
DSSS, BPSK
Digital Imaging
Yes
No
Medium
<20m
75m
Present
Security feature in
development
16
CHAPTER 6
WIRELESS METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS (WMAN)
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
130
6.1 Introduction
A WMAN is awireless network intended to provide a signal over an area
approximately the size of a metropolitan area (approximately 50 kilometers or 31
miles).
A WMAN is typically owned by a single entity such as an Internet service provider
(ISP), government entity, or large corporation.
Access to a WMAN is usually restricted to authorized users or subscriber devices.
WiMAX is the most widely used form of WMAN.
Goal: Provide high-speed Internet access to home and business subscribers, without
wires.
Base stations (BS) can handle thousands of subscriber stations (SS)
BS can control all data traffic that goes between BS and SS through the allocation of
bandwidth on the radio channel.
Supports
Legacy voice systems
Voice over IP
TCP/IP
Applications with different QoS requirements.
Main advantage: fast deployment, dynamic sharing of radio resources and low cost.
131
Description
Fixed Broadband Wireless Access (1066 GHz)
802.16.2-2001
802.16c-2002
802.16a-2003
P802.16b
License-exempt frequencies
(Project withdrawn)
Maintenance and System profiles for 211 GHz
(Project merged into 802.16-2004)
Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access
P802.16d
802.16-2004
Status
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Withdraw
n
Merged
Supersede
132
P802.16.2a
802.16.2-2004
802.16f-2005
802.162004/Cor 1
2005
802.16e-2005
802.16k-2007
802.16g-2007
P802.16i
802.16-2009
802.16j-2009
802.16h-2010
802.16m-2011
802.16-2012
System
(rollup of 802.162001, 802.16a, 802.16c and
P802.16d)
Coexistence with 211 GHz and 23.543.5 GHz
(Project merged into 802.16.2-2004)
IEEE Recommended Practice for Local and
metropolitan area networks
Coexistence of Fixed Broadband Wireless
Access Systems
(Maintenance and rollup of 802.16.22001 and
P802.16.2a)
Released on 2004-March-17.
Management Information Base (MIB) for 802.162004
Corrections for fixed operations
(co-published with 802.16e-2005)
Supersede
d
Current
Merged
Current
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Merged
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Supersede
d
Supersede
d[2]
Current
133
802.16.1-2012
802.16p-2012
802.16.1b2012
802.16n-2013
802.16.1a2013
802.16.1).
Released on 2012-August-17.
IEEE Standard for WirelessMAN-Advanced Air
Interface for Broadband Wireless Access
Systems
Released on 2012-September-07.
IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband
Wireless Access Systems
Amendment 1: Enhancements to Support
Machine-to-Machine Applications
Released on 2012-October-08.
IEEE Standard for WirelessMAN-Advanced Air
Interface for Broadband Wireless Access
Systems
Amendment 1: Enhancements to Support
Machine-to-Machine Applications
Released on 2012-October-10.
IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband
Wireless Access Systems
Amendment 2: Higher Reliability Networks
Approved on 2013-March-06.
IEEE Standard for WirelessMAN-Advanced Air
Interface for Broadband Wireless Access
Systems
Amendment 2: Higher Reliability Networks
Approved on 2013-March-06.
Current
Current
Current
Current
134
All uplink connections are unicast and all the downlink connections can be either
unicast or multicast.
IEEE 802.16 MAC Layer Reference Model
The IEEE 802.16 MAC layer is categorized into the following three sublayers:
Service Specific Convergence Sublayer (CS):
The service specific convergence sublayer (CS) provides any transformation or
mapping of external network data, received through the CS service access point
(SAP) into MAC SDUs received by the MAC CPS through the MAC SAP.
Accepts higher layer protocol data units (PDUs) from the higher layer.
Perform classification of higher layer PDUs and associates them to the proper service
flow identified by the connection identifier (CID).
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
135
Authentication
Encryption
PHY Layer
802.16 uses scalable OFDMA to carry data, supporting channel bandwidths of
between 1.25 MHz and 20 MHz, with up to 2048 subcarriers.
It supports adaptive modulation and coding, so that in conditions of good signal, a
highly efficient 64 QAM coding scheme is used, whereas when the signal is poorer, a
more robust BPSK coding mechanism is used.
In intermediate conditions, 16 QAM and QPSK can also be employed.
Other PHY features include support for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)
antennas in order to provide good non-line-of-sight propagation (NLOS)
characteristics (or higher bandwidth) and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) for
good error correction performance.
Although the standards allow operation in any band from 2 to 66 GHz, mobile
operation is best in the lower bands which are also the most crowded, and therefore
most expensive.
6.3 IEEE 802.16a (Broadband Wireless Access BWA)
Features:
Supports low latency applications such as voice and video,
Provides broadband connectivity without requiring a direct line of sight between
subscriber terminals and the base station (BTS) and
Will support hundreds if not thousands of subscribers from a single BTS.
Application of IEEE 802.16 Standard
136
137
LTE
Long Term Evolution is more commonly referred to as LTE
LTE is the 4th generation network that was designed through the Third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
It is an all IP network.
Its primary goals were to improve efficiency, lower infrastructure costs, create
a higher QoS, all while making use of new spectrum opportunities, and better
integrating with other open standards
Predominantly created by Ericsson, Nortel and Nokia-Siemens
WiMax
Mobile WiMax is short for Wireless Interoperability for Microwave Access
WiMax is the 4th Generation wireless broadband access network developed by
the IEEE
It is the 802.16e or upcoming 802.16m standards
It is an all IP network
Many hardware manufacturers are already supporting WiMax due to its open
standards. Some of the larger ones include Samsung, Motorola and Intel.
138
Features
WiMAX
LTE
Channel Bandwidth
Utilization
Modulation Technology
40 MHz
Frame Duration
Speed
120 km/hr
40 km/hr
Compliant to 2G and 3G
No
Yes
Less
More
139
140
Data sent over devices supporting 802.20 will be encrypted with public keys
generated by the AES 128-bit algorithms. In combination with AES-128, mechanisms
for ensuring that data integrity is preserved will be included in the standard. Further
security features will include cross-authentication to prevent user and BS spoofing, as
well as some sort of mechanism for preventing and/or avoiding Denial of Service
(DoS) attacks.
802.16
WiMAX
802.20
Mobile-FI
UMTS
3G
Range (LOS)
Range (NLOS)
11-54 Mbps
shared
100 meters
30 meters
Share up to 70
Mbps
30 50 km
2 - 5 km
Up to 1.5
Mbps each
3 8 km
Mobility
Portable
Full mobility
Frequency/
Spectrum
Licensing
384 Kbps 2
Mbps
Coverage is
overlaid on
wireless
infrastructure
Full mobility
Standardizatio
n
802.11a, b and
g standardized
Availability
In market today
802.16, 802.16a
and 802.16 REVd
standardized, other
under development
Products 2H05
Backers
Industry-wide
Bandwidth
Intel, Fujitsu,
Alcatel, Siemens,
BT, AT&T, Qwest,
McCaw
<3.5 GHz
Existing
wireless
spectrum
Licensed
Licensed
802.20 in
development
Part of GSM
standard
Standards
coming
Product late
06
Cisco,
Motorola,
Qualcom and
Flarion
CW in 6+
cities
GSM Wireless
Industry
CHAPTER 7
SECURITY ISSUES IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS
7.1 The Need for Wireless Network Security
A wireless local area network is a flexible data communication system.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
141
Wireless LANs transmit and receive the data over the air using the radio frequency
technology.
Thus, wireless LANs combine data connectivity with user mobility.
But one of the scariest revelations is that wireless LANs are insecure and the data sent
over them can be easily broken and compromised.
The security issue in wireless networks is much more critical than in wired networks.
The major issues are: (a) threats to the physical security of the network; (b)
unauthorized access by unwanted parties; and (c) privacy.
142
Client-to-client attacks: Wireless network users need to defend clients not just
against an external threat, but also against each other. Wireless clients that run TCP/IP
protocols such as file sharing are vulnerable to the same mis-configurations as wired
networks. Also, duplication of IP or MAC addresses whether its intentional or
accidental, may cause disruption of service.
Attacks against encryption: The IEEE 802.11b standard uses an encryption scheme
called Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) which has proven to have some weaknesses.
Sophisticated attacker can break the WEP scheme.
Mis-configuration: In order to have ease and rapid deployment, the majority of
access points have an unsecured configuration. This means that unless the network
administrator configures each access point properly, these access points remain at
high risk of being accessed by unauthorized parties or hackers.
Brute force attacks against passwords of access points: The majority of access
points use a single password or key, which is shared by all connecting wireless clients.
Attackers can attempt to compromise this password or key by trying all possibilities.
Once the attacker guesses the key or the password, he/she can gain access to the
access point and compromise the security of the system.
Insertion attacks: This type of attack is based on deploying a new wireless network
without following security procedure. Also, it may be due to installation of an
unauthorized device without proper security review.
143
Confidentiality: This service means the protection of data being carried by the
networkfrom passive attacks. The broadcast service should protect data sent by users.
Other formsof this service include the protection of a single message or a specific
field of a message.Another aspect of confidentiality is the protection of traffic from a
hacker who attempts toanalyze it. In other words, there must be some measures that
deny the hackers fromobserving the frequency and length of use, as well as other
traffic characteristics in thenetwork.
Non-repudiation: This service prevents the sending or receiving party from denying
the sent or received message. This means that when a message is received, the sender
canconfirm that the message was in fact received by the assumed receiver.
Authentication: The authentication service is to ensure that the message is from an
authentic source. In other words, it ensures that each communicating party is the
entity that it claims to be. Also, this service must ensure that the connection is not
interfered with in a way that a third party impersonates one of the authorized parties.
Access control: This service must be accurate and intelligent enough so that only
authorized parties can use the system. Also, this accuracy should not deny authorized
parties from using the network system.
Integrity: In this context, we differentiate between connection-oriented and
connection based integrity services. The connection-oriented integrity service deals
with a stream of messages, and ensures that the messages are sent properly without
duplication, modification, reordering or reply. Moreover, the denial of service aspect
is covered under the connection-oriented service. The connectionless integrity service
deals only with the protection against message modification.
Availability: Some attacks may result in loss or reduction of availability of the
system. Automated schemes can resolve some of these problems while others require
some type of physical procedures.
144
The 40-bit secret key is connected with a 24-bit Initialization Vector (IV) resulting in
a 64-bit total key size. The resulting key is input into the Pseudo-random Number
Generator (PRNG ).
The PRNG ( RC4 ) outputs a pseudorandom key sequence based on the input key.
The resulting sequence is used to encrypt the data by doing a bitwise XOR.
The result is encrypted bytes equal in length to the number of data bytes that are to be
transmitted in the expanded data plus four bytes.
This is because the key sequence is used to protect the 32-bit Integrity Check
Value(ICV) as well as the data.
The picture below illustrates how the WEP is encrypted.
WEP Decryption
The IV of the incoming message is used to generate the key sequence necessary to
decrypt the incoming message.
Combining the cipher text with the proper key sequence will give the original
plaintext and ICV.
The decryption is verified by performing the Integrity check algorithm on the
recovered plaintext and comparing the output of the ICV' to the ICV submitted with
the message.
If the ICV' is not equal to the ICV, the received message is in error, and an error
indication is sent to the MAC management and back to the sending station.
The following diagram exhibits how WEP is decrypted.
145
The 802.11 standard defines three different classes of frames on the wire: data, control, and
management. Each of these has a header with a variety of fields used within the MAC
sublayer.
Management frames have a format similar to that of data frames, except without one of the
base station addresses, because management frames are restricted to a single cell.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
146
Control frames are shorter still, having only one or two addresses, no Data field, and no
Sequence field. The key information here is in the Subtype field, usually RTS, CTS, or ACK.
Weaknesses of WEP
The IV is too small and in clear text: It's a 24-bit field sent in the clear text portion
of a message. This 24-bit string, used to initialize the key stream generated by the
RC4 algorithm, is a relatively small field when used for cryptographic purposes.
The IV is static: Reuse of the same IV produces identical key streams for the
protection of data, and because the IV is short, it guarantees that those streams will
repeat after a relatively short time (between 5 and 7 hours) on a busy network.
The IV makes the key stream vulnerable: The 802.11 standard does not specify
how the IVs are set or changed, and individual wireless adapters from the same
vendor may all generate the same IV sequences, or some wireless adapters may
possibly use a constant IV. As a result, hackers can record network traffic, determine
the key stream, and use it to decrypt the cipher text.
The IV is a part of the RC4 encryption key: The fact that an eavesdropper knows
24-bits of every packet key, combined with a weakness in the RC4 key schedule,
leads to a successful analytic attack that recovers the key after intercepting and
analyzing only a relatively small amount of traffic. Such an attack is so nearly a nobrainer that it's publicly available as an attack script and as open-source code.
WEP provides no cryptographic integrity protection: However, the 802.11 MAC
protocol uses a non-cryptographic Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to check the
integrity of packets, and acknowledges packets that have the correct checksum. The
combination of non-cryptographic checksums with stream ciphers is dangerous
and often introduces vulnerabilities.
7.8 Mobile IP
Mobile IP enable computers to maintain Internet connection during their movement
from one Internet access point to another.
The term mobile implies that the user is connected to one or more application across
the Internet and the access point changes dynamically.
Mobile IP is the modification to the standard IP so that it allows the client to send and
receive datagrams no matter where it is attached to the network.
The only security problem using this mechanism is redirection attacks.
A redirection attack occurs when a malicious client gives false information to the
home agent in the mobile IP network.
The home agent is informed that the client has a new care of address. So all IP
datagrams addressed to the actual client are redirected to the malicious client.
Mobile IP is designed to resist two kinds of attacks: (a) a malicious agent that may
reply to old registration messages and cut the node from its network, and (b) a node
that may pretend to be a foreign agent and send a registration request to a home agent
in order to divert traffic that is intended for a mobile node to itself.
Message authentication and proper use of the identification field of the registration
request and reply messages are often used to protect mobile IPs from these kinds of
attack.
In order to protect against such attacks, the use of message authentication and proper
use of the identification field of the registration request and reply messages is
supposed to be effective.
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
147
Each registration request and reply contains an authentication extension that has the
following fields:
Type: This is an 8 bit field that designates the type of authentication extension.
Length: This is an 8 bit field that identifies the number of bytes in the authenticator.
Security Parameter Index: This field has 4 bytes and is used to identify the security
context between a pair of nodes. The configuration of the security context is made so
that the two nodes share the same secret key and parameters relevant to the
authentication scheme.
Authenticator: This field has a code that is inserted by the sender into the message
using a shared secret key. The receiver uses the same code to make sure that the
message has not been modified. The default authentication scheme is the keyed-MD5
(Message Digest 5) which produces a 128-bit message digest.
148
Lack of support for multicasting and roaming between the wireless networks.
They are not completely transparent since users receive a login dialog when roaming
between VPN servers on the network or when a client system resumes from standby
mode.
For data transmission using PPTP, tunneling makes use of two basic packet types:
(a) data packets and (b) control packets.
Control packets are used strictly for status inquiry and signaling information and
are transmitted and received over a TCP connection.
The data portion is sent using PPP encapsulated in Generic Routing Encapsulation
(GRE) protocol.
GRE protocol provides a way to encapsulate arbitrary data packets within an
arbitrary transport protocol.
Although PPTP did not have any provision for authentication or encryption when
it was first developed, it has been enhanced recently to support encryption and
authentication methods.
2. Layer-2 Transport Protocol (L2TP)
Similar to PPTP, L2TP is basically a tunneling protocol and does not include any
encryption or authentication mechanism.
The main difference between PPTP and L2TP is that L2TP combines the data and
control channels and runs over the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Notes Compiled By: Mr. Nilesh M. Patil
IT Dept., RGIT
149
The latter is faster for sending packets that are commonly used in real-time
Internet communication because it does not retransmit lost packets.
On the other hand, PPTP separates the control stream, which runs over TCP, and
the data stream, which runs over GRE.
Combining these two channels and using high performance UDP makes L2TP
more firewall friendly than the PPTP. This is the main advantage as most firewalls
do not support GRE.
In PPP, a connection is tunneled using IP. An L2TP access concentrator is the
client end of the connection while an L2TP network server is the server side.
The PPP packets are encapsulated in an L2TP header that is encapsulated in IP.
These IP packets can traverse the network just like ordinary IP datagrams.
Data transmission in an L2TP can be implemented as a UDP-based IP protocol.
The packet is first generated at the client computer. This IP packet is sourced from
the client computer and destined for the remote network.
The packet is encapsulated in PPP. This packet is then encapsulated in L2TP.
UDP header is added to this L2TP packet and is encapsulated in an IP datagram.
This IP packet is destined for the Internet Service Provider (ISP) network.
The IP packets will again be encapsulated at PPP and terminate at the ISPs
network authentication server.
This final heavily encapsulated packet will be sent over the circuit switched layer
2 network.
150
Clearly, a VPN-based solution has the advantage of being scalable for a very large
number of users.
CHAPTER 8
ECONOMICS OF WIRELESS NETWORKS
8.1 Introduction
The field of mobile wireless communications is currently one of the fastest growing
segmentsof the telecommunications industry.
Wireless devices have nowadays found extensive use and have become an
indispensable tool on the everyday life of many people, both the professionally and
personally.
151
To gain insight into the momentum of the growth of the wireless industry, it is
sufficient to state the tremendous growth in the number of worldwide subscribers of
wireless systems.
With such growth rates, it is just a matter of time before the use of wireless systems
surpasses that of wire-line systems.
The movement towards integration of wireless networks and the Internet has reached
a point which marks a change for the business of the wireless industry.
The evolution from a voice-oriented to a data-oriented market will be the reason for
introduction of new services and revenues as well as major changes in the industrys
value chain.
Furthermore, the wireless industry is likely to move from a vertical integration model
to a horizontal integration model.
Vertical integration refers to the situation of one or more companies covering the
entire range of layers that are needed to offer services to the consumer.
On the other hand, horizontal integration follows a layered approach, where the
products of multiple companies are needed in order to offer services to the consumers.
Overall, the trend towards data-oriented wireless systems is expected to change the
economics of the wireless industry.
In the following section, we summarize the main factors affected by this change:
8.3.1 Terminal Manufacturers
8.3.1.1 Movement Towards Internet Appliances
It is expected that current wireless terminals will be substituted by Internet-enabled
ones, such as Internet-enabled pagers, phones, digital assistants, etc.
Thus, terminal manufacturers will face a new challenge in the design and
implementation of their products.
152
Whereas today the main target of terminal manufacturers is reduction in size and
battery power consumption, in the future the target will also be terminals that support
high-speed data services.
It is likely that terminals will be classified into a number of categories, with each
category addressing a different part of the consumer base.
Thus, terminal categories will possibly be characterized by different device costs and
capabilities.
153
Different governments lease spectrum for different time periods and some of them
also restrict its use to only certain services.
For example, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the national
regulatorinside the United States, licenses spectrum to operators without limiting
them on thetype of service to deploy over this spectrum.
On the other hand, the spectrum regulator of the European Union does impose such a
limitation. This helps growth of a specific type of standard, an example being the
success of GSM in Europe.
154
This adoption of the wireless Internet as a primary means of revenue means that
mobile carriers need to play a number of additional roles in order to stay competitive.
These additional roles are that of the Internet Service Provider (ISP), the portal, the
application service provider and the content provider. These roles are summarized
below:
The ISP role: The mobile carriers will have to carefully examine the case of the
fixedInternet world. Finally, it should see whether ISPs of the fixed Internet world
will enter the wireless Internet arena.
The portal role: Mobile carriers will also have to run their own portals to the
wirelessInternet world. In that case, mobile carriers will have the advantage of gaining
from the knowledgeand customer base of the successful fixed-Internet portal.
The application service provider role: In the 3G generations and beyond of wireless
networks, many new services will appear. Thus, mobile carriers are potential
providersof these new services, which may constitute a significant portion of revenue.
Examples ofsuch services are location-based services.
The content provider role: Mimicking the world of fixed Internet, mobile carriers
will alsohave to prepare content for their portals.
8.3.4.2 Few Carriers
The cost of the equipment for the rollout of the new services is estimated to be 24
times higher than the cost of 2G equipment.
This means that a reduced number of carriers is likely to characterize each market.
This number is estimated to be between two and four carriers for each countrys
market.
In cases where a larger number of competitive carriers appear, the chances are that
those with the largest subscriber base will probably acquire the biggest part of the
market.
This means that the market is divided between those carriers with obvious advantages
to their revenues. Smaller carrier companies obviously will not be able to survive the
competition and they will be forced to merge in order to stay competitive.
Overall, the market for mobile Internet will resemble an oligopoly, with a streak of
strategic behavior from competing carrier companies. This means that the prices of
products of a company affect those of its competitors.
In such an environment, companies implicitly come to a common agreement
regarding their prices. This kind of agreement is known as self-enforcing, since the
competitors abide by it due to the fact that this is in their interest.
Such a market, where a company chooses its strategy given the strategies of its
competitors in order to maximize its profit is said to be in a Nash equilibrium.
155
Carriers associated with telecomoperators, especially for data services, will have a
relative advantage.
Due to the different factors that dominate the telecommunications scene and the
society of each country, it is difficult to make predictions on successful carriers.
In the United States, the wireless market is affected by the large distances, lack of
spectrum, increased competition, large subscriber base, Internet popularity and a
divergence of standards.
In the European Union, however, the scenario is somewhat different: Internet use is
not that widespread, a single standard exists (GSM) and, as mentioned above,
roaming traffic is an important part of the total traffic.
As stated, wireless data will become a significant part of the traffic over future
mobilewireless data.
It is interesting to note the similarity of today situation regarding the wireless Internet
with that of the wired Internet in the early 1990s.
In those years, Internet was characterized by lower data rates (due to low-speed (up to
9.6 kbps) dial-up modems) and applications far from todays user-friendly ones, such
as the inconvenient Mosaic web browser.
Furthermore, information was available mostly in text format and graphics were of
low resolution.
However, speeds increased (reaching 56 kbps for dial-up and 128 kbps for ISDN)as
did usability (an example being the introduction of Netscapes and Internet
Explorersgraphical interfaces) thus raising the popularity and penetration of the
Internet.
Specifically, it enjoyed a tremendous evolution with traffic per user rising from one
MB per month in 1991 to 200 MB per month in 1999.
A somewhat similar situation with that of the early days of Internet characterizes
todays wireless data scene: low data rates, abbreviated user interfaces (e.g. those of
the Short Message Service (SMS) and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)), textlike output and low-resolution graphics.
As the capabilities and usability of wireless networks increases, a growth similar to
that of fixed Internet will be observed for the wireless Internet as well.
156
157
A fundamental issue in the wireless market is the way carriers charge their customers.
Although customers are certainly attracted to new and exciting technologies, most of
them will make their choice of carrier based on the charges.
Thus, it can be seen that charging policies have the potential to greatly impact the
success of mobile carriers.
158
This actually allowed carriers to charge as much as they wanted for calls terminating
on their own network.
Since charging for this type of service did not affect their own customers, most
carriers decided to charge a lot.
This situation, which resulted in high prices for international calls, began to change in
the 1990s, when multiple fixed telephony carriers began to appear within the market
of the same country.
These carriers were interconnected with others of the same country in order to
allowusers of competing carriers to call each other.
The calls between telephones of differentcarriers were charged in a way similar to that
presented in Figure 8.1 above.
Some of these newcarriers also set up connections with carriers of neighboring
countries by bypassing theaccounting rate system.
In order to be competitive, they offered lower charges for internationalcalls and thus
prices for such calls began to fall.
159
Receiving (called) Party Pays (RPP): This approach, shown in Figure 8.3, is mostly
used in the U.S. and Canada. The called party pays for usage of the mobile network.
Thus, calling a mobile phone from a fixed phone costs the calling party the same
amount of money as when the call is placed between two fixed telephones. This
approach is driven by the fact that in the U.S. consumers are accustomed to the
situation in which local calls are free, thus paying for a call to a mobile phone in the
same area would seem incongruous.
160
Once the charges for utilizing network resources are summed up, mobile carriers
must bill their customers. There exist two main approaches here: contracts and prepaid billing.
A contract is essentially leasing of a connection to the network of the carrier. Users
that sign such contracts usually get the mobile handset for free.
The mobile operators of course eventually get back the cost of the handset, since the
contract forces users to pay a monthly rental charge for their connection
irrespectiveof the fact that they might not use the connection at all.Of course the user
is also charged for both calls.
Contracts have the disadvantage of limiting the userto a specific carrier for a certain
amount of time. Thus,another approach appeared; that of pre-paid time.
Thisapproach, first applied by Telecom Portugal (TMN) in1995, requires users pay in
advance for both their handsetsand the calls they make.
Handsets can be boughtfrom electronics stores and usually include a certainamount of
credits, which translate into speaking time(and obviously credits for using other
network services,such as SMS).
Once the user of the phone has exhaustedall the credits, the phone can be recharged
via a simpleprocedure. The pre-paid approach has found wide acceptancein Europe
and developing countries.
161
162
might increase the complexity to the network. However, the overhead to subscribers
remains minimal as the method is transparent to them.
3. Expected Capacity Charging: This method involves an agreement between the user
and the carrier regarding the amount of network capacity that will be received by the
user in case of network congestion; and a charge for that level of service. However,
users are not necessarily restricted to the agreed capacity. In cases of low network
congestion, a user might receive a higher capacity than the agreed one without
additional charge. Nevertheless, the network monitors each users excess traffic and
when congestion is experienced, this traffic is either rejected or charged for. The
advantage of this method is that it enables mobile carriers to achieve more stable
long-term capacity planning for their networks. Expected capacity charging is less
complex than packet charging both in terms of network and subscriber overhead.
4. Paris-Metro Charging: In this method, the network provides different traffic classes,
with each class being characterized by different capabilities (such as capacity) and
hence a different charge. Thus, users can assign traffic classes to their different
applications based on the desired performance/cost ratio. Switching between traffic
classes might also be initiated by the network itself in order to provide self-adaptivity.
Paris-Metro charging is useful for providing network traffic prioritization in wireless
data networks. Another advantage of the method is that it provides customers with the
ability to control the cost of their network connections. The disadvantages of this
method are an increase in the mathematical complexity of the networks behavior and
thus cost of implementation and the fact that users must be familiar with the process
of assigning traffic classes to their connections, which introduces some overhead for
them.
5. Market-based reservation charging: This method entails an auctioning procedure for
acquiring network resources. Users place monetary bids and based on these bids the
network assigns appropriate connections to users. An advantage of this method is the
fact that users are in control of the quality of service they receive from the network.
For example, business users will be more likely to accept a higher charge for their
connections than customers that use the network for recreational activities. However,
the disadvantages of this method are that (a) due to the bidding procedure, customers
are never sure regarding the quality of service they receive from the network, (b) the
auctioning approach adds to network overhead, (c) users must make bids, thus the
method is not transparent to them and familiarization with it is required. Furthermore,
market-based reservation charging raises the issue of unfairness since some customers
may not be able to receive the desired performance. It is generally agreed that this
method is not suitable for the wireless Internet.
Table below summarizes some characteristics of the above charging methods:
Charging Method
Metered Charging
Packet Charging
Expected Capacity
Implementation
Cost
Medium-High
High
Medium-High
Network Overhead
Low
High
Medium
Transparence to
Customers
Low
High
Medium
163
Charging
Paris-Metro
Charging
Market-based
Reservation
Charging
Medium
High
Low
Medium-High
High
Low
WCDMA
CMDA2000
5 MHz
3.75 MHz
164
protection
Chip Rate : number of DSSS pulses
per second; a chip is a pulse of DSSS
code
4.096 MHz
3.68 MHz
Higher
Lower
1500 Hz
800 Hz
20 ms (also uses
5, 30, 40 ms
10 ms
frames)
Asynchronous
Synchronous
TDM, Dedicated
CDM, Common
pilot
Pilot
TDM, Dedicated
reception
pilot
Auxiliary pilot