Safety Instrumentation Lecture - 1: DR V S Krushnasamy Associate Professor

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DEPT OF ELECTRONICS and INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

IEEI821 Safety Instrumentation
SAFETY INSTRUMENTATION
Lecture – 1
Dr V S Krushnasamy
Associate Professor
3/14/2019 Dept of Instrumentation Technology 1

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DEPT OF ELECTRONICS and INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING
Contents of Lecture
Lesson plan
1. Prerequisites
2. Course Objectives
3. Course Outcomes
4. CO-PO Mapping
5. Syllabus
6. Text Books
7. Model Question Paper

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Prerequisites
Familiarity with Industrial Control Systems
Elementary knowledge of safety.

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Course Objectives: The students should be able to Learn
 To identify, classify and maintain the different Safety
Instrumented System.
 To compare the specific Zones in Process
Instrumentation.
 To understand the working of safety instrumentation
system.
 To describe the working of various types of reports for
maintenance.
 To define Risk with reference to safety integrated system.

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Course Outcomes
 Define Safety Instrumentation System (terms).
 Classify the various types of zones to hazard and
safety process in instrumentation and control.
 Describe safety integrated level SIL- 0 to SIL-4.
 Compare SIF, SIS, SIL.
 List the types of protection system maintenance
program PSMP.
 Notify the protection system failures as report
and action.
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Course Contents
Module 1
 INSTRUMENTATION SAFETY IN PROCESS APPLICATIONS
With guiding standard of IEC 61421.10 and IEC 60079.10 for Types of
Zones of Processes in NFPA 497/API 500
 Dust zones
 Gas / Vapor groups
 Equipment Protection Level (EPL)
 Common Materials within Associated Class and Group Ratings
 Equipment protection system
 Emergency shutdown system
 Safety critical system
 Interlock (engineering)
 Reliability regimes
 Software engineering for life critical systems
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Module 2
SAFETY INSTRUMENTED SYSTEM (SIS) Safety Instrumentation systems
terms
HAZOP -HAZard and OPerability studies
FMECA-Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis (FMECA)
PFD-Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD),
FMEA-Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
SFF-Safe Failure Fraction (SFF)
SIF- Safety Instrumented Function
PHA-Process Hazards Analysis (PHA)
HIPPS-High Integrity Process Pressure System(HIPPS)
Safety Life Cycle
Safety Requirement Specifications.
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Module 3
SAFETY INTEGRATED LEVEL (SIL)
Safety Integrated Level SIL 0 / None
SIL1
SIL 2-
SIL 3
SIL 4
RISK
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Module 4
SAFETY INSTRUMENTED FUNCTION(SIF) AND SAFE
FAILURE FRACTION(SFF) IN FIELD,UTILITY AND SIM
 Safe Failure Fraction (SFF)
 Safety Instrumented Function (SIF)
 Hazard, Mode of
operation,Detecion,Decision,Action
 Safe state, Response time,
 Proof –test interval, Spurious trip rate
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Module 5
OPERATION, MAINTENANCE, TESTING,
REPORTING AND MANAGEMENT OF PSMP
Reports/Records
Protection System Maintenance Program
(PSMP)
 Self Monitoring Capabilities and Limitations
Notifications of Protection Systems Failures
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Text Books
1.ld Goettsche. ISA Maintenance of
Instruments and Systems, 2nd Edition ISA.
2. Williams M. Goble, Control system safety
evaluation and reliability ,ISA.
3. Harry Cheddie , William M. Goble , Safety
Instrumented Systems Verification: Practical
Probabilistic Calculation,ISA.
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Reference Books
1. Alan McMillan, Electrical Installations in
Hazardous Areas, Butterworth-Heineman
1998.
2. Lindley R. Higgins, R. Keith Mobley, Darrin
Wyckoff, Maintenance Engineering
Handbook Seventh Edition.
3. Jones E. B. Instrument Technology, Vol - I, II,
Hollywell
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Content Beyond Syllabus

S.No Relevance to PO,
Topics
. PSO's
Safety Instrumented System for

1 PSO1
Automation Industry

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ASSIGNMENT:
S.No. Topics Relevance to CO's
Safety Integrated Level(SIL) / Safety

1 Instrumented Function(SIF)/Safety Instrumented CO1,CO3,CO4
System (SIS)

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PEDAGOGICAL INITIATIVES
S.No. Topics Activity planned
1 Safety Integrated Level(SIL) / Safety Quiz

Instrumented Function(SIF)/Safety
Instrumented System
2 SIS/SIF with an application Poster Presentation

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WEB RESOURCES:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_equipment_in_hazardous_areas .
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_instrumented_system
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_critical_system
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-safe
5. https://www.processengr.com/ppt_presentations/safety_lifecycle_training_2015.pdf
6. https://www.emerson.com/documents/automation/consider-these-safety-
instrumented-system-best-practices-en-38176.pdf.
7. https://www.iec.ch/functionalsafety.
8. https://www.csagroupuk.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/11/CSA_Group_Functional_Safety_IEC_White_Paper_PrV.pdf.
9. http://sellacontrols.com
10. https://www.nerc.com/docs/standards/sar/PSMT_Supplementary_Reference_Draft1
_2009July23.pdf
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When/Where
To (Frequency Evidence Course
Method What Max
Whom in the Collected Outcome
course)
3 IA tests
conducted
30 Blue Book 1 to 6
and average
(Continuous
Evaluation)
IA Exam
Internal
is taken
CIE
Open book Assignment

DIRECT ASSESSMENT
1 to 6
assignment 10 Book
AAT 10 AAT sheet 1 to 6
Students
SEE(Semester End
Examination)
End of the Result

End Exam
50 1 to 6
course Sheet
Total 100
INDIRECT ASSESSMENT
1 to 6
Effectiveness
Students
Online
Course Exit of Delivery
End of the Question
Survey of Course,
Semester naires
Assessment
Methods

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Scheme of Evaluation for Semester End Exam
Sl. No. Scheme Max. Marks
Each Question carries 1 Mark (including all

1. modules)-Objective / Short questions from 20
Module I to Module V
2. Compulsory question – Module 1 16
Optional question – Module 4 (or)
5. Optional question – Module 4 16
Optional question – Module 5 (or)

6. Optional question – Module 5 16
3/14/2019 TOTALDept of Instrumentation Technology 100 18

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Abbreviations/Standards/Terminology
NFPA - National Protection Association
NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturers
Association
IEC - International Electro technical
Committee
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
API - American Petroleum Institute
NEC - National Electrical Code
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NFPA 497
Classification of Flammable Liquids,Gases,or Vapors and of
Hazardous(Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in
Chemical Process Areas. National Fire protection
Association,2004.
API 500
Recommended Practice for Classification of Locations for
Electrical Installations at Petroleum Facilities Classified as
Class I, Division 1 and Division 2
IEC 60 079 -10: Explosive atmospheres standard
Part 10-1: Classification of areas – Explosive gas atmospheres
Part 10-2/IEC 61241-10: Classification of areas – Combustible
dust atmospheres.
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Area Classification : Why
1.Severe accidents in coal mines occurred through the
world in the 19 & 20 th century.
Causes: result of ignition of fire damp by sparks(often
generated by electrical apparatus) leading to those
catastrophic accidents.
2.Oil,Gas and Chemical industries also generated many
accidents( fire, explosion).
Safety problems related to the design and use of
electrical apparatus in hazardous areas have led the
authorities at a very early stage to impose very strict rules
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Some Basics: Hazardous Locations

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• If any side of the triangle is missing, a fire cannot exist.

• If any side of the triangle is removed, the fire will
extinguish
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Area Classification :
 Method of analyzing and classifying the
environment where explosive gas atmospheres
may occur so as to facilitate the proper selection
and installation of equipment to be used safely in
that environment.
 Allows preparation of safety procedures for plant
operation and maintenance.
 The area classification process reduces the overall
installation risk through design improvements.
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Where
 Oil and Gas production and processing plants(Onshore,Offshore)
 Oil and Gas tankers, Drilling ships
 Oil refineries
 Petrochemical and chemical processing plants
 Gas pipelines and Distribution centers
 Refueling stations or Petrol Stations
 Underground coal mines
 Printing industries, Paper and Textiles
 Hospital operating theatres
 Surface coating industries
 Sewerage treatment plants
 Grain handling and storage processing(flour-milling industry)
 Sugar refineries
 Light metal Working ,where metal dust and fine particles can appear
 Woodworking areas.
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• In an industrial plant such as a refinery or chemical
process plant, handling of large quantities of
flammable liquids and gases creates a risk of leaks.
• In some cases the gas, ignitable vapor or dust is
present all the time or for long periods.
• Other areas would have a dangerous concentration of
flammable substances only during process upsets,
equipment deterioration between maintenance
periods, or during an incident.
• Refineries and chemical plants are then divided into
areas of risk of release of gas, vapor or dust known as
divisions or zones
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What is an explosion?
An explosion is defined as a sudden reaction involving
rapid physical or chemical decay accompanied by an
increase in temperature or pressure or both.

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When will an explosion occur?

The most common types of reaction are
between flammable gases, vapors, or dust with
oxygen contained in the surrounding air.

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As a rule, 3 basic requirements must be met for an
explosion to take place in atmospheric air:
• Flammable substance — needs to be present in
sufficient quantity to produce an ignitable or
explosive mixture.
• Oxidizer — must be present in sufficient quantity
in combination with the flammable substance to
produce an explosive mixture. Most common is
air [O2].
• Source of ignition — a spark or high heat must be
present.
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Important Note:
The presence of these three elements make up
the sides of the ignition triangle. If any one of
the three elements is missing, an explosion will
not occur. All three elements must exist
simultaneously for an explosion to occur.

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CLASSIFY THE VARIOUS TYPES OF ZONES WITH RESPECT

TO HAZARD AND SAFETY OF PROCESS IN
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL :
A hazardous location [sometimes abbreviated to

HAZLOC] is defined as a place where concentrations of
flammable gases, vapors, or dusts occur.

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AREA CLASSIFICATION :
 Area classification methods provide a concise description of
the hazardous material that may be present, and the
probability that it is present, so that the appropriate
equipment may be selected and safe installation practices
may be followed.
 The NFPA establishes area classifications based on Classes,
Divisions, and Groups which are factors combined to define
the hazardous conditions of a specific area.
 Hazardous areas are divided into Zones [European and
IECEX method] or Divisions [North American method]
according to the likelihood of a potentially explosive
atmosphere being present.
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NFPA 497
Classification of Flammable Liquids,Gases,or Vapors and of
Hazardous(Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in
Chemical Process Areas. National Fire protection
Association,2004.
API 500
Recommended Practice for Classification of Locations for
Electrical Installations at Petroleum Facilities Classified as
Class I, Division 1 and Division 2
IEC 60 079 -10: Explosive atmospheres standard
Part 10-1: Classification of areas – Explosive gas atmospheres
Part 10-2/IEC 61241-10: Classification of areas – Combustible
dust atmospheres.
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NON-HAZARDOUS AREA :
 An area such as a residence or office would be classed as
Non Hazardous [safe area], where the only risk of a
release of explosive or flammable gas would be such
things as the propellant in an aerosol spray.
 The only explosive or flammable liquid would be paint and
brush cleaner. These are classed as very low risk of causing
an explosion and are more of a fire risk [although gas
explosions in residential buildings do occur].
 Non hazardous areas on chemical and other plant are
present where the hazardous gas is diluted to a
concentration below 25% of its lower flammability limit [or
lower explosive limit [LEL]].
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DIVISION 2 / ZONE 2 AREA:
 This is a step up from the safe area. In this zone the gas,
vapor or mist would only be present under abnormal
conditions [most often leaks under abnormal conditions].
As a general guide for Zone 2, unwanted substances should
only be present under 10 hours/year or 0–0.1% of the time.
 Zone 2 place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting
of a mixture with air of flammable substances in the form
of gas, vapour or mist is not likely to occur in normal
operation but, if it does occur, will persist for a short period
only.
 Flammable atmosphere unlikely to be present except for
short periods of time - typically as a result of a process fault
condition.
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DIVISION 1 / ZONE 1 AREA:
 Gas, vapor or mist will be present or expected to be
present for long periods of time under normal
operating conditions. As a guide for Zone 1, this can be
defined as 10–1000 hours/year or 0.1–10% of the time.
 Zone 1 place in which an explosive atmosphere
consisting of a mixture with air of flammable
substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is likely to
occur in normal operation occasionally.
 Flammable atmosphere possible but unlikely to be
present for long periods.
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ZONE 0 AREA:
 Gas or vapor is present all of the time. An example of this
would be the vapor space above the liquid in the top of a
tank or drum. The ANSI/NEC classification method consider
this environment a Division 1 area. As a guide for Zone 0,
this can be defined as over 1000 hours/year or >10% of the
time.
 Zone 0 place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting
of a mixture with air of flammable substances in the form
of gas, vapour or mist is present continuously or for long
periods or Frequently.
 Flammable atmosphere highly likely to be present - may be
present for long periods or even continuously.
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Important Note:
It is intended to be applied where there may be an ignition hazard due
to the presence of flammable gas or vapor, mixed with air under
normal atmospheric conditions, but it does not apply to,
 Mines susceptible to fire damp.

 The processing and manufacture of explosives.
 Areas where a hazard may arise due to the presence of ignitable
dusts or fibres [refer IEC 61241.10/IEC 60079-10-2].
 Catastrophic failures which are beyond the concept of abnormality
dealt with in this standard.
 Rooms used for medical purposes.
 Domestic premises.

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DUST ZONES :
 Flammable dusts when suspended in air can explode. An
old system of area classification to a British standard used a
system of letters to designate the zones. This has been
replaced by a European numerical system, as set out in
directive 1999/92/EU implemented in the UK as the
Dangerous Substances and Explosives Atmospheres
Regulations 2002.

 The boundaries and extent of these three dimensional
zones should be decided by a competent person. There
must be a site plan drawn up of the factory with the zones
marked on.
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ZONE 20 :
A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a
cloud of combustible dust in air is present continuously, or for
long periods or frequently(1000hrs per year).
ZONE 21 :
cloud of combustible dust in air is likely to occur, occasionally,
in normal operation(10-1000hrs per year).
ZONE 22 :
cloud of combustible dust in air is not likely to occur in normal
operation but, if it does occur, will persist for a short period
only(less than 10hrs per year).
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GAS / VAPOUR GROUPS :
GAS DIVISIONS OR ZONES :
Explosive gases, vapors and dusts have different chemical properties that
affect the likelihood and severity of an explosion.
Such properties include flame temperature, minimum ignition energy, upper

and lower explosive limits, and molecular weight.
Empirical testing is done to determine parameters such as the maximum

experimental safe gap, minimum ignition current, explosion pressure and
time to peak pressure, spontaneous ignition temperature, and maximum rate
of pressure rise.
Every substance has a differing combination of properties but it is found that

they can be ranked into similar ranges, simplifying the selection of equipment
for hazardous areas.
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Flammability of combustible liquids are defined by their
flash-point. The flash-point is the temperature at which
the material will generate sufficient quantity of vapor to
form an ignitable mixture.
The flash point determines if an area needs to be
classified.
A material may have a relatively low auto ignition
temperature yet if its flash-point is above the ambient
temperature, then the area may not need to be classified.
Conversely if the same material is heated and handled
above its flash-point, the area must be classified.
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Each chemical gas or vapor used in industry is

classified into a gas group :
Group Representative Gases
I All Underground Coal Mining. Firedamp

(methane)
IIA
Industrial methane, propane, petrol
IIB Ethylene, coke oven gas and other industrial
gases
IIC Hydrogen, acetylene, carbon disulphide

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Note:
 Apparatus marked IIB can also be used for IIA gases.
 IIC marked equipment can be used for both IIA and IIB.
 If a piece of equipment has just II and no A, B, or C after then it is
suitable for any gas group.
 A list must be drawn up of every chemical gas or vapor that is on
the refinery/chemical complex and included in the site plan of the
classified areas. The above groups are formed in order of how
volatile the gas or vapour would be if it was ignited, IIC being the
most volatile and IIA being the least. The groups also indicate how
much energy is required to ignite the gas by spark ignition, Group
IIA requiring the most energy and IIC the least.
 Typical gas hazards are from hydrocarbon compounds, but
hydrogen and ammonia are common industrial gases that are
flammable.
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Group II is for electrical and mechanical

apparatus used in places other than mines.
Gases of Group II are further divided into sub-
divisions i.e. IIA, IIB and IIC. The sub-divisions
are based on experimental work conducted
with flameproof and intrinsically safe
apparatus.
This sub-division is also called the explosion
group.
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COMMON MATERIALS WITHIN ASSOCIATED CLASS AND GROUP
RATINGS :
CLASS DEFINITION:
 The NFPA Publication 70, NEC, and CEC define three categories of
hazardous materials that have been designated as Class I, Class II,
or Class III.
 The Classes define the type of explosive or ignitable substances
which are present in the atmosphere such as:
 Class I locations are those in which flammable vapors and gases
may be present.
 Class II locations are those in which combustible dust may be
found.
 Class III locations are those which are hazardous because of the
presence of easily Ignitable fibres or flyings.
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DIVISION DEFINITION :
Each of the three Classes, is further subdivided into two
Divisions,Division 1 or Division 2.The Division defines the
likelihood of the hazardous material being present in a
flammable concentration.
Division 1 : In which ignitable concentrations of hazards exists
under normal operation conditions and/or where hazard is
caused by frequent maintenance or repair work or frequent
equipment failure.
Division 2 : In which ignitable concentrations of hazards are
handled, processed or used, but which are normally in closed
containers or closed systems from which they can only escape
through accidental rupture or breakdown of such containers
or systems.
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 The explosive characteristics of the air mixtures of
gases, vapors, or dusts vary with the specific material
involved.
 Materials have been placed in groups based on their
ignition temperatures and explosion pressures.
 Class I and Class II Divisions are further subdivided into
Groups of hazardous materials. The Groups define
substances by rating their flammable nature in relation
to other known substances.
 Combustible and flammable gases and vapours are
divided into four Groups.
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CLASS I AREAS [FLAMMABLE GASES, VAPORS OR

LIQUIDS] :
Group A: Acetylene
Group B: Hydrogen
Group C: Propane and Ethylene
Group D: Benzene, Butane, Methane and
Propane
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CLASS II AREAS [COMBUSTIBLE DUSTS] :
Group E: Metal Dust

Group F: Carbon and Charcoal
Group G: Flour, Starch, Wood and Plastic.

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ANSI/NFPA AREAS DESCRIPTION :
CLASS I, DIV. 1 : Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases,
vapors or liquids are present continuously or frequently within the
atmosphere under normal operation conditions.
CLASS I, DIV. 2 : Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases,
vapors, or liquids are present within the atmosphere under abnormal
operating conditions.
CLASS II, DIV. 1 : Where ignitable concentrations of combustible
dusts are present within the atmosphere under normal operation
conditions.
Class II, Div. 2 : Where ignitable concentrations of combustible dust
are present within the atmosphere under abnormal operating
conditions.
CLASS III, DIV. 1: Where easily ignitable fibers or materials producing
combustible flyings are present within the atmosphere under normal
operation conditions.
CLASS III, DIV. 2: Where easily ignitable fibers or materials producing
combustible flyings are present within the atmosphere under
abnormal operating conditions.
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TEMPERATURE CLASSIFICATION [AS PER USA STANDARD] :
 The temperature classes are used to designate the maximum
operating temperatures on the surface of the equipment which
should not exceed the ignition temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere.
 Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature required, at
normal atmospheric pressure in the absence of a spark or flame, to
set afire or cause self sustained combustion independently of the
heating or heated element.
 Another important consideration is the temperature classification
of the electrical equipment. The surface temperature or any parts
of the electrical equipment that may be exposed to the hazardous
atmosphere should be tested that it does not exceed 80% of the
auto-ignition temperature of the specific gas or vapor in the area
where the equipment is intended to be used.
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Note:
 The above table tells us that the surface temperature of a
piece of electrical equipment with a temperature
classification of T3 will not rise above 200 °C.

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AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURES [VAPORS & GASES] :
The auto-ignition temperature of a liquid, gas or vapor is the
temperature at which the substance will ignite without any
external heat source. The exact temperature value determined
depends on the laboratory test conditions and apparatus. Such
temperatures for common substances are:
Note: The surface of a high pressure GAS TEMPERATURE
Methane 580 °C
steam pipe may be above the auto Hydrogen 560 °C
ignition temperature of some fuel/air Propane 493 °C

Ethylene 425 °C
mixtures. Acetylene 305 °C
Naphtha 290 °C
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Carbon disulfide 102 °C 65
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AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURES [DUST] :

The auto-ignition temperature of a dust is usually higher than
that of vapours & gases. Examples for common materials are:
SUBSTANCE TEMPERATURE
SUGAR 460 °C
WOOD 340 °C
FLOUR 340 °C
GRAIN DUST 300 °C
TEA 300 °C

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Equipment Protection Level[EPL]
 EPL stands for Level of protection assigned to the
equipment.
 Equipment Protection Level [EPL] is specified for
several kinds of protection. The required Protection
level is linked to the intended use in the zones
described.
 Historically it was acceptable to install equipment into
specific c zones based on the type of protection.
 In some cases it has been shown that the type of
protection may be divided into different levels of
protection that can be correlated against each zone.
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The equipment category indicates the level of

protection offered by the equipment :
Category 1 equipment may be used in zone 0,
zone 1 or zone 2 areas.
Category 2 equipment may be used in zone 1
or zone 2 areas.
Category 3 equipment may only be used in
zone 2 areas.
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Group 1(Mines)
EPL Ma:
 Apparatus for installation in a mine, with a very
high safety protection level, that remains
functional in an explosion-hazardous
environment, even with an exceptional fault.
EPL Mb:
 Apparatus for installation in a mine, with a high
safety protection level, that will be de-energized
in the event of an explosive atmosphere.
Group 2(Gas)
EPL Ga
Equipment for explosive gas atmospheres, having a 'very high' level
of protection, which is not a source of ignition in normal operation,
expected faults or when subject to rare faults.
EPL Gb
Equipment for explosive gas atmospheres, having a ‘high’ level of
protection, which is not a source of ignition in normal operation or
when subject to faults that may be expected, though not necessarily
on a regular basis.
EPL Gc
Equipment for explosive gas atmospheres, having a ‘enhanced’ level
of protection, which is not a source of ignition in normal operation
and which may have some additional protection to ensure that it
remains inactive as an ignition source in the case of regular expected
occurrences [for example failure of a lamp].
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EPL Da
 Equipment for combustible dust atmospheres, having a ‘very
high’ level of protection, which is not a source of ignition in
normal operation or when subject to rare faults.
EPL Db
 Equipment for combustible dust atmospheres, having a ‘high’
level of protection, which is not a source of ignition in normal
operation or when subject to faults that may be expected,
though not necessarily on a regular basis.
EPL Dc
 Equipment for combustible dust atmospheres, having an
‘enhanced’ level of protection, which is not a source of
ignition in normal operation and which may have some
additional
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 Pressurized apparatus achieves separation of ignition sources
from explosive atmospheres by purging the atmosphere
inside the apparatus with air or an inert gas and then
maintaining a positive pressure inside the equipment to
prevent the ingress of the explosive atmosphere during
operation.
 Failure of the pressurization leads to an alarm operating or
the disconnection of the components having ignition
capability.
 The equipment is designed according to EN 60079-2. The
protection px and py are suitable for equipment category
2G / equipment protection level [EPL] Gb and protection
pz is suitable for equipment category 3G / EPL Gc.
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Level of protection ia :
 Intrinsically safe circuits in electrical apparatus of category
‘ia’ must not be capable of causing an ignition during
normal operation when two faults occur.
a] in normal operation and with the application of those non-
countable faults which give the most onerous condition;
b] in normal operation and with the application of one
countable fault plus those non-countable faults which give the
most onerous condition;
c] in normal operation and with the application of two
countable faults plus those non-countable faults which give
the most onerous condition.
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Level of protection ib :
 Intrinsically safe circuits in electrical apparatus of
category ‘ib’ must not be capable of causing an
ignition in each of the following circumstances:
a] in normal operation and with the application of
those non-countable faults which give the most
onerous condition;
b] in normal operation and with the application of
one countable fault plus those non-countable faults
which give the most onerous condition;
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Level of protection ic :
Intrinsically safe circuits in electrical apparatus
of category ‘ib’ must not be capable of causing
an ignition in normal operation:
a]Where distances are critical for safety, they
shall meet the requirements of IEC 60079-11 .

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Safety Instrumented Systems(SIS)

A Safety Instrumented System [SIS] consists of an engineered set
of hardware and software controls which are especially used on
critical process systems. A critical process system can be
identified as one which, once running and an operational
problem occurs, may need to be put into a "Safe State" to avoid
adverse Safety, Health and Environmental[SH&E] consequences.

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The instrumentation function used to implement one or more
safety instrumented functions.SIS is comprised of a combination
of sensors, logic solvers and final elements.
SIS loop: “An SIS is a distinct, reliable system used to safeguard
a process to prevent a catastrophic release of toxic, flammable,
or explosive chemicals.”
SIS loop scope: “System composed of sensors, logic solvers, and
final control elements for the purpose of taking a process to a
safe state, when predetermined conditions are violated.”
The scope of a SIS encompasses all instrumentation and
controls that are responsible for bringing a process to a safe
state in the event of an unacceptable deviation or failure.
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 The function of the SIS is to monitor the process
for potentially dangerous conditions [process
demands], and to take action when needed to
protect the process.
 An SIS is designed to respond to conditions in the
plant which may be hazardous in themselves or, if
no action was taken, could eventually give rise to
a hazard, and to respond to these conditions by
taking defined actions that either prevent the
hazard or mitigate the hazard consequences.
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 SIS is composed of the same types of control elements [including
sensors, logic solvers, actuators and other control equipment] as a
Basic Process Control System [BPCS] to a safe state when normal
predetermined set points are exceeded, or safe operating
conditions are violated.
 SISs are also called emergency shutdown [ESD] systems, safety

shutdown [SSD] systems, and safety interlock systems.
 The specific control functions performed by an SIS are called Safety

Instrumented Functions [SIF]. A Safe State is a process condition,
whether the process is operating or shutdown, such that a
hazardous SH&E event cannot occur. The safe state must be
achieved in a timely manner or within the "process safety time".
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The basic SIS layout comprises:
 Sensor[s] for signal input and power.
Input signal interfacing and processing.
 Logic solver with associated communications and
power.
 Output signal processing, interfacing and power.
 Actuators and valve[s] or switching devices to
provide the final control element function.

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Examples of Safety Instrumented Systems :
 High fuel gas pressure furnace initiates shutdown of main fuel gas
valves.
 High reactor temperature initiates fail open action of coolant
valve.
 High column pressure initiates fail open action of pressure vent
valve.
Every element in the loop is part of the SIS, and needs to be
considered when doing an analysis of the SIS. This could include
pressure and temperature transmitters, a control system or stand-
alone controller, control valves or other final control devices,
electrical wiring, process piping,power supplies, software, etc

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Safety Methods employed to protect against or mitigate
harm/damage to personnel, plant and the environment, and
reduce risk include:
 Changing the process or engineering design

 Increasing mechanical integrity of the system
 Improving the Basic Process Control System [BPCS]
 Developing detailed training and operational procedures
 Increasing the frequency of testing of critical system
components
 Using a safety Instrumented System [SIS]
 Installing mitigating equipment
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SAFETY INSTRUMENTED SYSTEMS INCLUDE :
Equipment protection system,

Emergency shutdown system,
Safety critical system,
Interlock [engineering]

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The Equipment Protection System or EPS is a control system in charge

of protecting the machine and equipment from X-ray beam, or other
hazards such as overpressure or overheating, which may damage the
equipment or prevent proper operation.
The EPS performs two major tasks:
 Evaluate periodically the machine parameters, check their state,

 And in case of malfunction, bring the subsystem or the whole
machine to prevent the machine or a subsystem from entering an
inadmissible state or performing forbidden actions.

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 This is achieved by the means of interlocks, digital output signals

that lock the system until predefined operating conditions are
met.
 By periodically checking the machine parameters, they guarantee
that in less than 24ms a potential error condition is detected and
the corresponding output signal is generated.
 Equipment Protection Systems monitor the status of specific

elements and can take action to avoid damage in certain limits
are reached.
 The user can check the EPS status via a software window or a
control panel.
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 Equipment connected to the EPS includes water flow meters,
vacuum pressure and temperature sensors, radio frequency
subsystem, Linac, ion pumps, spectrum analyzers,
Brehmsstrahlung shutter, pneumatic valves, FS/OTR,
compressed air, front-ends, radio frequency, magnets and
power supplies.
EPS monitoring including:
 Temperatures, / Vacuum Levels, / Water flow rates, /
Component positions, / Valve positions, Component
position, / Shutter Position.
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• The Equipment Protection Systems are integrated with
Personnel Protection Systems, to ensure fail safe operation.

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EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN SYSTEM [ESD] :
 The purpose of the ESD system is to prevent escalation of
abnormal conditions into a major hazardous event and to limit the
extent and duration of any such events that do occur.
ESD system has interfaces with the following safety
systems/functions:
process safety;
 Vent system;
 Gas detection;
 fire detection;
 alarm and emergency communication.
In addition, ESD initiations will activate [direct or indirect] other safety
systems/functions such as HVAC, emergency power and lighting, PA,
subsea control, drilling and well intervention and marine systems.
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Manual activation buttons of ESD system shall be located at
strategic positions where accessibility and manning in a hazard
situation is taken into account, such as:
 CCR(Central Control Room)
 APS(Abandon Platform Shut Down
 helideck [APS];
 muster areas/lifeboat stations [APS];
 bridge connections [ESD2];
 drilling areas [driller shut down and ESD2];
 exits from process and
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wellhead areas [ESD2].
Dept of Instrumentation Technology 127
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 Manual activation buttons shall be protected against
inadvertent activation, e.g. with protective covers.
 Each activation station shall be clearly marked, and a
consistent color coding shall be applied for the
activation buttons, e.g. black with yellow stripes for
APS and yellow for ESD2.
 Isolation of emergency power supplies [e.g. UPS] upon
APS shall be executed via a timer independent of the
logic solver, normally 30 min. It shall be possible to
initiate immediate shut down from CCR during timer
countdown.
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 ESD valves shall isolate and sectionalize the installations process plant in a
fast and reliable manner to reduce the total amount of released
hydrocarbons in the event of a leakage.
 A shut down valve shall be categorized as an ESD valve if the consequence
of valve failure is that a possible fire will exceed the dimensioning fire load
for the area in question.
In addition the following shut down valves shall be categorized as ESD valves:
 valves located in, or are the nearest shut down valve to, a hydrocarbon
riser;
 valves located on the liquid outlet of large liquid vessels, such as
separators;
 valves located in a utility system where the consequences of valve failure
with respect to safety may be significant, shall be subject to special
consideration;
 well stream isolation valves [Down Hole Safety valve(DHSV), master valve,
wing valve];BD valves.
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 ESD system activation shall activate all actions in
accordance with the FES.
 Consideration shall be given to interrelations
between interconnected fields and installations,
e.g. by pipelines or control systems.
 The ESD functions shall be arranged in a tree-
structured hierarchy, APS, ESD1 and ESD2.
 A superior ESD level shall initiate lower levels
including PSD. A signal on a certain level should
never initiate shutdowns or actions on higher
levels.
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The following automatic actions shall be executed:
 shut down of wells [installation and subsea] and

import/export pipelines including stop of export from
upstream installations;
 shut down and sectioning of the hydrocarbon process
facilities;
 initiation of BD;
 ignition source isolation;
 shut down of main power generation;
 start/stop of emergency power generator;
 shut down of drilling, intervention and work-over
equipment not required
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Dept of Instrumentation control. 131
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Emergency shutdown [ESD] final elements is ESD valves shall isolate
and sectionalize the installations process plant in a fast and reliable
manner to reduce the total amount of released hydrocarbons in the
event of a leakage.
Shutdown valves form part of a Safety instrumented system. The
process of providing automated safety protection upon the detection
of a hazardous event is called Functional Safety.
ESD system shall activate all actions in accordance with the FES.
Consideration shall be given to interrelations between interconnected
fields and installations, e.g. by pipelines or control systems.
Emergency shutdown [ESD] alarm annunciation shall be given
as quickly as possible to warn personnel upon ESD level
initiation.
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Typical Actions from an Emergency Shutdown System
 Shutdown of part systems and equipment
 Isolate hydrocarbon inventories
 Isolate electrical equipment
 Stop hydrocarbon flow
 Depressurize / Blowdown
 Emergency ventilation control
 Close watertight doors and fire doors

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Safety Critical Systems
LIFE-CRITICAL SYSTEM or SAFETY-CRITICAL SYSTEM is a system whose
failure or malfunction may result in one [or more] of the following
outcomes:
 Death or serious injury to people.
 Loss or severe damage to equipment/property.
 Environmental harm.
Risks of this sort are usually managed with the methods and tools of
safety engineering. A life-critical system is designed to lose less than
one life per billion [109] hours of operation. Typical design methods
include PROBABILISTIC RISK ASSESSMENT, a method that combines
failure mode and effects analysis [FMEA] with FAULT TREE ANALYSIS.
Safety-critical systems are increasingly computer-based.
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PROBABILISTIC RISK ASSESSMENT

 Probabilistic risk assessment [PRA] is a systematic and
comprehensive methodology to evaluate risks associated with
a complex engineered technological entity [such as an airliner
or a nuclear power plant].
 Risk in a PRA is defined as a feasible detrimental outcome of
an activity or action. In a PRA, risk is characterized by two
quantities:
 The magnitude [severity] of the possible adverse
consequence[s],
 The likelihood [probability] of occurrence of each
consequence
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FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

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 Fault tree analysis [FTA] is a top-down, deductive
analytical method.
 In FTA, initiating primary events such as
component failures, human errors, and external
events are traced through Boolean logic gates to
an undesired top event such as an aircraft crash
or nuclear reactor core melt.
 The intent is to identify ways to make top events
less probable, and verify that safety goals have
been achieved.
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 Fault trees are a logical inverse of success trees, and may
be obtained by applying de Morgan's theorem to success
trees [which are directly related to reliability block
diagrams].
 FTA may be qualitative or quantitative.
 When failure and event probabilities are unknown,
qualitative fault trees may be analyzed for minimal cut sets.
For example, if any minimal cut set contains a single base
event, then the top event may be caused by a single failure.
 Quantitative FTA is used to compute top event probability,

and usually requires computer software such as CAFTA
from the Electric Power Research Institute or SAPHIRE from
the Idaho National Laboratory.
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EXAMPLES OF LIFE-CRITICAL SYSTEMS
Infrastructure :
 Circuit breaker,
 Emergency services dispatch systems,
 Electricity generation, transmission and
distribution,
 Fire alarm,
 Fire sprinkler,
 Fuse [electrical], Fuse [hydraulic],
 Telecommunications,
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Burner Control systems. 139
Dept of Instrumentation Technology
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Medicine :
 The technology requirements can go beyond avoidance of
failure,
 facilitate medical intensive care [which deals with healing
patients], and also life support [which is for stabilizing
patients];
 Heart-lung machines,
 Mechanical ventilation systems,
 Infusion pumps and Insulin Pumps,
 Radiation therapy machines,
 Robotic surgery machines,
 Defibrillator machines.
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Nuclear Engineering :
 Nuclear reactor control systems,
 Nuclear reactor cooling systems
Recreation
 Amusement rides,
 Climbing equipment,
 Parachutes,
 SCUBA Equipment
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Transport :
 Railway signaling and control systems,
 Platform detection to control train doors,
 Automatic train stop.
Automotive :
• Airbag systems,Braking systems, Seat belts, Power
Steering systems, Advanced driver assistance systems,
Electronic throttle control,Battery management system
for hybrids and electric Vehicles,Electric Park Brake,
Shift by wire systems, Drive by wire systems, Park by
wire.
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Aviation :
Air traffic control systems, Avionics, particularly fly-by-
wire systems,Radio navigation RAIM, Engine control
systems, Aircrew life support systems, Flight planning to
determine fuel requirements for a flight.
Spaceflight :
Human spaceflight vehicles, Rocket range launch safety
systems,Launch vehicle safety, Crew rescue systems, Crew
transfer systems.
•3/14/2019 Dept of Instrumentation Technology 143

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INTERLOCK [ENGINEERING]
 An interlock is a feature that makes the state of two
mechanisms or functions mutually dependent.
 It may be used to prevent undesired states in a finite-state
machine, and may consist of any electrical, electronic, or
mechanical devices or systems.
 In most applications, an interlock is used to help prevent a
machine from harming its operator or damaging itself by
preventing one element from changing state due to the
state of another element, and vice versa.
 Elevators are equipped with an interlock that prevents the
moving elevator from opening its doors, and prevents the
stationary elevator (with open doors) from moving.
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• An interlock should not be confused with a simple safety

switch.
• For example, in a typical household microwave oven, the
switch that disables the magnetron if the door is opened is
not an interlock. Rather, it would be considered an interlock
if the door were locked while the magnetron is on, and the
magnetron were prevented from operating while the door
is open.
• Interlocks may include sophisticated elements such as
curtains of infrared beams, photodetectors, a computer
containing an interlocking computer program, digital or
analogue electronics, or simple switches and locks.
•3/14/2019 Dept of Instrumentation Technology 145
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INTERLOCKS is:
Focused on events and their logical
relationship;
Applicable to diverse components [e.g.
hardware, software, or operator events];
Graphical [employing symbols and color to
represent event relationships, event types,
and event states]; and Requires no
programming knowledge to use.
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Good practices in control interlock for safety :
 Never by-pass the calculation [logic] for the SIS, i.e., never turn it
off
 Never mechanically block a control, SIS valve so that it cannot close
 Never open manual by-pass values around control and shutdown
valves
 Never "fix" the alarm acknowledgement button so that new alarms
will not require the action of an operator
 Avoid using the same sensor for control, alarm, and SIS. Also, avoid
using the same process connection [thermowell, tap, etc.] for all
sensors.
 Avoid combining high and low value alarms into one indication

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 Critically evaluate the selection of alarms, do not
have too many alarms
 Use independent equipment for each layer,
including computing equipment.
 Select emergency manipulated variables with a
fast effect on the key process variable.
 Use redundant equipment for critical functions
 Provide capability for maintenance testing, since
the systems are normally in "stand-by” for long
times - then must respond as designed!
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RELIABILITY REGIMES
Reliability regimes for life-critical systems
consist
Fail-operational systems,
Fail-safe systems,
Fail-secure,
Fail-Passive systems,
Fault-tolerant systems
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FAIL-OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS :
 Fail-operational systems continue to operate when
their control systems fail.
 Examples of these include elevators, the gas
thermostats in most home furnaces, and passively safe
nuclear reactors.
 Fail-operational mode is sometimes unsafe. Nuclear
weapons launch -on-loss-of-communications was
rejected as a control system for the U.S. nuclear forces
because it is fail-operational: a loss of communications
would cause launch, so this mode of operation was
considered too risky.
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Fail-safe systems
 Fail-safe means that a device will not fall the lives or
property in danger situation when it fails.
 Fail-safe systems become safe when they cannot operate.
Many medical systems fall into this category.
 Fail - safe systems become safe when they cannot operate.
 Programmable logic controllers [PLCs]. To make a PLC fail-
safe the system does not require energization to stop the
drives associated. For example, usually, an emergency stop
is a normally closed contact. In the event of a power failure
this would remove the power directly from the coil and also
the PLC input. Hence, a fail-safe system.
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FAIL-SECURE SYSTEMS :
 Fail-secure means that access or data will not fall into the
wrong hands in a failure. Sometimes the approaches
suggest opposite solutions.
 Fail-secure systems maintain maximum security when
they can’t operate.
For example,
 While fail-safe electronic doors unlock during power
failures, fail-secure ones will lock, keeping an area secure.
 Security doors.
 If a building catches fire, fail-secure would lock doors to
prevent unauthorized access to the building.
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FAIL PASSIVE SYSTEMS
 Fail-Passive systems continue to operate in the event of
a system failure.
 Fail-Passive systems a system failure “does no harm”.
 An example includes an aircraft autopilot. In the event
of a failure, the aircraft would remain in a controllable
state and allow the pilot to take over and complete the
journey and perform a safe landing in other word
aircraft autopilots that stop controlling the plane, but
won’t steer aircraft in the wrong direction.
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FAULT-TOLERANT SYSTEMS :
 Fault-tolerant systems avoid service failure when faults are
introduced to the system. An example may include control
systems for ordinary nuclear reactors.
 The normal method to tolerate faults is to have several
computers continually test the parts of a system, and
switch on hot spares for failing subsystems. As long as
faulty subsystems are replaced or repaired at normal
maintenance intervals, these systems are considered safe.
 Interestingly, the computers, power supplies and control
terminals used by human beings must all be duplicated in
these systems in some fashion.

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING FOR LIFE-CRITICAL SYSTEMS
• A safety-critical system is one that has the potential to
cause accidents.
• Software is hazardous if it can cause a hazard i.e. cause
other components to become hazardous or if it is used
to control a hazard.
• Software is deemed safe if it is impossible or at least
highly unlikely that the software could ever produce an
output that would cause a catastrophic event for the
system that the software controls.
• Examples of catastrophic events include loss of physical
property, physical harm, and loss-of life.
• Software engineering of a safety-critical system
requires a clear understanding of the software’s role
in, and interactions with, the system
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 exercises direct command and control over the
condition or state of hardware components; and, if not
performed, performed out-of-sequence, or performed
incorrectly could result in improper control functions
[or lack of control functions required for proper system
operation], which could cause a hazard or allow a
hazardous condition to exist.
 Decisions which shape the software architecture for
safety-critical, realtime systems are driven in part by
three qualities: availability, reliability, and robustness.

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A safety critical software requirement performs one or more of
the following functions

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SAFETY CRITICAL SOFTWARE TESTING
 Safety critical software functions provide the source of
requirements to be tested.
 Testing must show that hazards have been eliminated or
controlled to an acceptable level of risk.
There are three aspects which can be applied to aid the engineering
software for life-critical systems.
 First is process engineering and management.
 Secondly, selecting the appropriate tools and environment for the
system. This allows the system developer to effectively test the
system by emulation and observe its effectiveness.
 Thirdly, address any legal and regulatory requirements, such as FAA
requirements for aviation.

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• By setting a standard for which a system is required to be
developed under, it forces the designers to stick to the
requirements. The avionics industry has succeeded in
producing standard methods for producing life-critical
avionics software.
• Similar standards exist for automotive [ISO 26262], Medical
[IEC 62304] and nuclear [IEC 61513] industries. The
standard approach is to carefully code, inspect, document,
test, verify and analyze the system.
• All of these approaches improve the software quality in
safety-critical systems by testing or eliminating manual
steps in the development process, because people make
mistakes, and these mistakes are the most common cause
of potential life-threatening
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errors.
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FULL FORMS & NORMS
 NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION [NFPA]

 NATIONAL ELECTRICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION [NEMA]
 [International standard] IEC 61511 – A standard for the application of Safety
Instrumented Systems in the process industries.
 IEC 61508 - A generic standard for design, construction, and operation of
electrical/electronic/programmable electronic systems.
 IEC 62061 – A standard for the Machinery Systems.
 IEC 62425 – A standard for Railway signaling systems.
 IEC 61513 – A standard for Nuclear systems.
 DHSV - down hole safety valve.
 SSIV - Subsea isolation valve.
 APS - Abandon platform shut
3/14/2019 down.

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DEPT OF ELECTRONICS and INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

3/14/2019 Dept of Instrumentation Technology 1

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Content Beyond Syllabus

Safety Instrumented System for

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Safety Integrated Level(SIL) / Safety

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1 Safety Integrated Level(SIL) / Safety Quiz

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Open book Assignment

AAT 10 AAT sheet 1 to 6

End of the Result

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Each Question carries 1 Mark (including all

Optional question – Module 5 (or)

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Some Basics: Hazardous Locations

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• If any side of the triangle is missing, a fire cannot exist.

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When will an explosion occur?

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CLASSIFY THE VARIOUS TYPES OF ZONES WITH RESPECT

A hazardous location [sometimes abbreviated to

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 Mines susceptible to fire damp.

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Such properties include flame temperature, minimum ignition energy, upper

Empirical testing is done to determine parameters such as the maximum

Every substance has a differing combination of properties but it is found that

Each chemical gas or vapor used in industry is

I All Underground Coal Mining. Firedamp

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Group II is for electrical and mechanical

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CLASS I AREAS [FLAMMABLE GASES, VAPORS OR

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CLASS II AREAS [COMBUSTIBLE DUSTS] :

Group E: Metal Dust

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ignition temperature of some fuel/air Propane 493 °C

AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURES [DUST] :

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