WMC Full
WMC Full
WMC Full
Overview
Applications, systems, and coverage regions
1. Voice 1. broadcast systems
2. Internet access 2. paging systems
3. Web browsing 3. cordless telephony
4. Paging 4. cellular telephone system
5. SMS 5. BANs, PANs and LANs
6. File transfer 6. MANs and WANs
7. Teleconferencing 7. satellite systems
8. Entertainment 8. ad hoc networks
……and many more
New approaches:
1. UWB
2. Adaptive spectral usage
Technical Challenges of Wireless Comm.
Wired and wireless communications
Medium
Capacity
Communication range
Delay in transmission
BER
Quality
Interference and crosstalk
Energy consumption
Multipath propagation
Spectrum limitations
Energy limitations
User mobility
Noise and interference limited systems
Cellular telephone system
Limitations in conventional mobile phone system
1. Limited service capability (handoff)
2. Poor service performance (33 channels to MTS / 50 mi dia) – high
blocking probability
3. Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization (each channel can serve
only one user at a time in whole area)
BASE
STATION
MSC
Overview of Mobile Cellular System
PSTN
Link designed to
handle many s/gs Signaling Links
Voice Trunks
simultaneously
Mobile Processor
Switching
Center Switch
Voice Trunks
Data Links (control
channel)
Cell Site Base Station
Forward Voice Channel Forward Setup Channel
Mobile Station
Mobile Cellular System Components
Components:
- Transmitter
- Receiver
- Antenna
- CPU and Battery
- End User Interface
Base Station (BS)
- Each cell has a base station at its center.
- Interfaces with MSC using voice trunks.
- Communicates with MS using RF energy.
Functions:
- RF transmission of information to MS and RF reception from MS.
- Voice processing.
- Actual handoff.
Components: - Voice radios
- Setup radios
- Locate radios
- Antennas
- Voice trunks to MSC
- Data link to MSC
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
- Central point of control in the cellular system.
- Controls:
+ All or subset of BS.
+ Interfaces BS to PSTN
Functions:
Control channels
Setting up and maintaining calls
Establish relationship between mobile unit and nearest BS
Traffic channels
Carry voice and data
Cellular Systems Generations
• Introduction
• 1G , 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G, 5G
• Comparison
First Generation (1G) Cellular Systems
• Early 1980s in North America (ends 1990)
- Consists of analog cellular systems.
- Provide affordable mobile service with satisfactory QoS,
efficiently using the limited available spectrum.
• US: American Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
• JAPAN: Nippon Advanced Mobile Telephone Service (NAMTS)
• England: Total Access Communication System (TACS)
• Germany: C450
• Characteristics:
- Analog FM
- FDMA
- Channel BW: 25 kHz or 30 kHz
- 824-894 MHz frequency band
- Speed was up to 2.4kbps
- Voice calls only
Limitations of 1G
Hexagon
Provides equidistant antennas
Radius defined as radius of circum-circle
Distance from centre to vertex equals length of side
Location of antennas
Cellular Geometries
Solution:
-For a given distance between the centre of a polygon
and its farthest perimeter points, the hexagon has the
largest area out of three. (Square, Triangle & Hexagon)
N = i2 + ij + j2
i, j, non negative integers
i=j=1 N=03
i=1, j=2 N=07
i=2, j=2 N=12
Channel Assignment
Handoff
- Identifying a new base station.
- Allocation of voice & control signals to channels associated
with the new base station.
C k 0 k!
Microcell zone
- distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach
places
- rely on BS antenna placements
- do not suffer the trunking efficiencies
Cell splitting
Non-uniform distribution of topography and traffic
≈ 27 dB
- with omnidirectional antenna
S/I = 18 dB (N = 7)
- an increase of 9 dB can
achieve N = 4
- 600 sectoring achieves
N=3
Micro cell zone concept
Microcells
Move antennas from tops of hills and large buildings to tops of
small buildings and sides of large buildings
Even lamp posts
Form microcells
Reduced power
Good for city streets,
along roads, & large
buildings
Mobile Radio Propagation –
Large-Scale Path Loss
Line-of-sight (Space wave
Propagation)
Free space path loss model
LOS System Design
Aim: “To deliver sufficient signal power to the receiver at the
far end of the link to achieve some performance objective.”
General steps
1. Site Selection
- Need to select tower location in LOS of each other.
- Select location for radio equipments.
5. Path survey
- Verification of first four steps
- Additional planning information
Noise
a) Thermal noise (AWGN)
b) Intermodulation noise
c) Crosstalk
d) Impulse noise
Multipath propagation
Multipath Propagation
Reflection
Surface large relative to wavelength of signal
May have phase shift from original
May cancel out original or increase it
Diffraction
Edge of impenetrable body that is large relative to wavelength
May receive signal even if no line of sight (LOS) to transmitter
Scattering
Obstacle size on order of wavelength
Lamp posts etc.
Fading
Two Pulses in Time-Variant Multipath
Fading
Reduction in received power.
causes: Refraction, diffraction or reflection or combination, which is
referred as multipath fading
Fading Margin
System gain
B
1 x
(d
B 5
0/
2 2
d)
B
f
()
xd e
2d
B
1. Longley-Rice model
2. Durkin’s model
3. Okumura and Hata model
4. Walfisch and Bertoni model
5. Wideband PCS microcell model
Okumura model
Developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation in Urban
area over a quasi-smooth terrain
Predicts avg. Path loss b/w BS and MU
Applicable for:
1. Freq. Range - 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (up to 3000 MHz)
2. Distance – 1 to 100 km
3. BS Ant height – 30 to 1000 m, MU – 1 to 10 m
Completely based on measured data and does not provide any
analytical explanation
Simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction in
cluttered environments
Drawback is its slow response to rapid changes in terrain, i.e. Fairly
good in urban and suburban areas but not as good for rural areas
Common standard deviation b/w predicted and measured path loss
values are around 10 to 14 dB
Okumura model
PL(d)db = PL(d0) + A(fc,d) – G(hb) - G(hm) - GArea
PL(d)db = median value of propagation path loss
PL(d0) = Free space path loss
A(fc,d) = Median attenuation relative to free space
G(hb) & G(hm) - Antenna height gain factor
GArea = Gain due to type of environment (correction factor)
τmax = dmax/C
2. SLOW FADING
If TS << TC, and BS >> BD, the channel impulse response changes at
a rate much slower than the Tx symbol duration
Small Scale Fading
(Based on Multipath time delay spread)
Equalization
Applied to transmissions that carry analog or digital
information
Used to combat Intersymbol interference
Gathering the dispersed symbol energy back together into its
original time interval
Techniques include so-called lumped analog circuits and
sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Error Compensation Mechanisms
Diversity
Based on fact that individual paths experience independent
fading effects
Provides multiple logical paths between transmitter and
receiver
Send same signal over each path
Reduces error rate
Generally classified as:
Space diversity
Frequency
Time
Angle
Polarization
Diversity Techniques
General benefits of diversity:
- Reduces fade margin requirements
- Increased equipment reliability
- Reduces transmitter power
- Greater tolerance to interference
The signal in each diversity branch must ideally experience
completely independent fading.
Diversity technique
Explicit Implicit
Explicit technique
- More than one diversity branch used by Tx.
- Tx transmits multiple replicas of the signal on different
diversity branches.
- Rx receives on different diversity branches.
Implicit technique
- Tx transmits the signal once.
- The different replicas of signal are produced by propagation
medium.
- Rx receives on different branches.
Space diversity (implicit)
Single Tx antenna and a no. of Rx antennas.
Rx system consists of two receivers tuned to the same frequency.
Each Rx is connected to one antenna.
Spacing can be in horizontal as well as the vertical plane.
Fading effect will be different because distance is varying, called
space diversity.
At Rx, either selection method of diversity reception or
switching method (requires only one Rx)
Angle diversity (implicit)
Antennas are kept at different angles (requires directional
antennas)
Each antenna responds independently to wave propagating at a
specific angle
High probability that at least one angle will receive favourable s/g
Frequency diversity (explicit)
Two pairs of Tx & Rx are needed, each tuned to different
frequency.
Difference between frequencies should be at least 2% to 5%.
Same signal sent over two frequencies.
Number of Tx and Rx antennas is reduced to one.
Polarization (explicit)
The horizontal and vertical polarization elemnets Ex and Ey,
transmitted by two polarized antennas at BS and received by two
polarized antennas at MU.
Time (explicit)
Repeatedly transmits information at time spacing
Modulation Techniques
For
Mobile Radio
Factors Influencing the Choice of Digital Modulation
- Performance Parameters:
+ BW efficiency
+ Power efficiency: Ability of modulation technique to preserve
the fidelity of digital message at low power levels.
ηp = Eb/N0 = S/g energy per bit / PSD
Linear Non-linear
+ Amplitude of transmitted signal varies linearly with modulating
signal.
+ BW efficient.
For a linear modulation transmitted signal
s (t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2Πfc t)]
= A [m R (t) Cos (2 Πfc t) – m I (t) Sin (2 Πfc t)]
m (t) = m R (t) + j m I (t)
Linear modulation technique include
+ QPSK
+ OQPSK
+ Π/4 QPSK
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
- Two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of
carrier frequency.
s (t) = A Cos (2 Π f c t) binary 1
= 0 binary 0
- Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
- Equivalent to DSB-SC
- BPSK can be generated using balanced modulator.
- Coherent / Synchronous demodulation.
- P e BPSK = Q [√2Eb/N0 ]
Q – function is statistical parameter indicating channel
characteristics
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
Two local oscillators of same frequency and 90o phase shift are
used.
The received signal may be expressed:
x
(
t
) 2
S
cos
(t ).
np(
t
n
nT
s).
- In OQPSK, the even and odd bit streams are offset in their
relative alignment by one bit period (half symbol period).
OQPSK
OQPSK signals are pulse shaped.
Pi/4 QPSK
- Compromise between OQPSK & QPSK in terms of allowed
maximum phase transition.
- Demodulation either coherent or non coherent.
- Max. phase change is limited to ± 135o.
QPSK – 180o
OQPSK - 90o
- Preserves the constant envelope property.
- More susceptible to envelope variations.
- In multipath spread and fading, gives better performance than
OQPSK.
- Signalling points of modulated S/g are selected from two QPSK
constellation which are shifted by Π/4 with respect to each other.
Pi/4 QPSK signaling
Pi/4 QPSK phase shifts
Pi/4 QPSK transmitter
Differential detection of pi/4 QPSK
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
- Features:
+ Constant envelope
+ Spectral efficiency
+ Good BER performance
+ Self synchronizing capacity.
MSK modulation
MSK reception
GMSK Modulation
Robust to the fading effects.
s
(
t
)A
cos(
2f
t
Ca
p
(
kT
)]
d)
c
t
k
2
T
k
1 (
E
)
2
BERerfc
2
a
t
where σ2 is the variance of the noise power,
λ is the signal component & η is the inter symbol interference.
Spread Spectrum Technique
Spread Spectrum
A Tx technique in which a PN code (independent of information
data), is employed as a modulation waveform to spread the signal
energy over a BW much greater than the information signal BW.
- Advantages:
+ secure communications
+ multiple access capability
+ increased capacity and spectral efficiency
+ difficult to jam
Pseudo Random Noise:
PN code sequence acts as a noise like (but deterministic) carrier
used for BW spreading of signal energy.
Not a random code, but looks like random for the users who does
not know the code.
Frequency Hopping:
Signal broadcast over a random series of frequencies, hopping
from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals.
A Rx. hoping between frequencies in synchronization with the Tx,
picks up the message.
Frequency Hopping
A no. of channels are allocated to frequency hopped signal (if PN
code size is k bits then no. of channels = 2k)
The Tx operates in one channel at a time for a fixed interval
(300ms- IEEE) and during this interval some bits are transmitted
The sequence of channel used is dictated by PN code
Binary Modulator Sd(t) p(t) BPF SS S/g
Data FSK or BPSK s(t)
C(t)
Frequency
Synthesizer
Transmitter
s(t) p(t) binary
BPF Demodulator
c(t) data
Frequency
Synthesizer
Receiver
- Using FSK as data modulation scheme.
sd(t) = A Cos [2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f) t], for i T < t < (i+1)T
f0 = base frequency
bi = value of ith bit of data (+1 for 1 & -1 for 0)
∆f = frequency separation
T = bit duration, Data rate = 1 / T.
Types of FHSS:
If TC ≥ TS Slow FHSS
TC < TS Fast FHSS
TC = Chip duration (one hop duration)
T = symbol or bit duration
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
N = (Bt – 2Bguard) / Bc
TDMA Features:
- TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users.
No. of time slots/frame = f (modulation technique, average BW)
Efficiency of TDMA:
- It is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that contains
information.
- Frame efficiency (ηf) Percentage of bits per frame containing
transmitted data.
- No. of overhead bits per frame
bOH = Nrbr + Ntbp + Ntbg + Nrbg
Nr = No. of reference bursts / frame
br = Overhead bits / reference bits
Nt = No. of traffic bursts / frame
bp = Overhead bits / preamble in each slot
bg = Guard time interval bits
- Total number of bits / frame bT = Tf . R
Tf = Frame duration
R = Channel bit rate
ηf = [1- (bOH / bT)] 100%
N = m (Btot – 2Bguard) / Bc
D
I n k
k
k1
or
Q = [6 (C/I) min] 1/n
- Radio Capacity of a Cellular System:
Bt
m def radio channels / cell
Bc.N
m = Radio capacity metric
Bt = Total allocated spectrum for the system
Bc = Channel BW
N = No. of cells in a frequency reuse pattern.
- For a hexagonal geometry
Q = D / R = √3N
B t Bt
m 2
2/n
Q
Bc
radio channels / cell
6
3 C
Bc
min
n I
2
3
- Typically, Min. required C/I = 12 dB for narrowband digital
systems
= 18 dB for narrowband analog
systems.
- Each digital wireless standard has a different (C/I)min
- To compare different systems, equivalent (C/I) (C/I)eq is used.
- For constant Bt & m
(C/I)eq = (C/I)min (Bc/B’c)2
W
R
N1
Eb S
N0