Hypertext, Hypermedia

and Multimedia
CALL Module: Master Two
Prepared by : Miss Hamida ZEDAM
Ken Beatty’s “Researching and Teaching Computer Assisted Language Learning”
Hypertext, Hypermedia and Multimedia

Hypertext

Hypermedia

Multimedia

Science fiction and CALL

Applications to general learning

Applications of multimedia to language learning

 A. Hypertext
• Hypertext refers to links among textual items, often indicated on a computer or website by key
words set in underlined blue type, that, when highlighted by a pointer device (e.g. mouse,
trackball, finger on a touch-sensitive screen) and selected or clicked, take the reader to the
referent. These links are usually defined in terms of their activity and are referred to as hotlinks or
hyperlinks or, increasingly commonly, simply links.
• The referent of the hyperlink might be a separate screen or so-called ‘page’ that obscures or
replaces the first page, or simply a small box of text that appears to float above the initial page. For
example, in a language-learning program, one might click on a hypertext link to go to one of
several choices in a branching story and arrive at that link on another page, or simply click on a
word to get a floating box offering its dictionary definition.
1. The Significance of Hypertext
• Bolter (1991) explains the significance of hypertext: ‘Electronic text is the
first text in which the elements of meaning, of structure, and of visual
display are fundamentally unstable’ (p. 31).
• By this he means that electronic texts are subject to rearrangement and
reordering by the user beyond the traditional linear organization of books.
This has countless implications to the creation of language-learning
materials where the sequence of learning is so often strictly predetermined,
based on research, as to the order of complexity of lexical items and
structures.
2. The Development of Hypertext

• The development of hypertext has been associated most closely with a

constructivist model of learning and aspects of schema theory. But while
the behaviourist model might use hypertext’s special features only to link
text with explanations, tests and answers, the constructivist model might
consider the same features and use them to encourage learners to
evaluate the structure and the sequence of their own learning. This latter
approach is more likely to accommodate collaboration and negotiation of
meaning as it involves a greater degree of decision-making.
3. Schema Theory

• Schema theory is important to CALL because it provides an idea of how

knowledge is organized. Psychologist F.C. Bartlett (1886–1969) first proposed
the idea of schema theory in 1932. Nunan (1993) defines schema theory as ‘A
theory of language processing which suggests that discourse is interpreted
with reference to the background knowledge of the reader or listener’ (p.
124). Nunan also notes ‘schema theory suggests that the knowledge we carry
around in our heads is organized into interrelated patterns. These are
constructed from all our previous experiences and they enable us to make
predictions about future experience’ (p. 71).
• Schema theory is important to CALL because many aspects of schema mirror
the organization of hypertext, hypermedia and multimedia.
4. Schema Theory and Hypertext

• A. Dillon, C. McKnight and J. Richardson suggest that:

“Some hypertext researchers and designers believe that hypertext
information structures should reflect the structures of human memory
and that by empirically deriving and then mapping the semantic
structure of information onto hypertext and explicitly illustrating that
structure in the hypertext interfacer will result in greater changes in
the knowledge structures of the users. “
• (Jonassen, 1990, 1991b; Lambiotte et al., 1989; McAleese, 1990;
McDonald, Paap and McDonald, 1990). Dillon et al. (1993: 165)
4. Schema Theory and Hypertext
5. Constructivism Vs. Behaviourism and their relation to CALL

• Schema theory offers a dividing line between behaviourism and constructivism in that it is
largely ignored by the former but is integral to the latter. Behaviourism often assumes that the
learner’s state of mind is that of a blank slate, waiting to be written on; constructivism assumes
that the learner comes to the classroom with a rich set of ideas and experiences.

• Constructivism differs from behaviourism in that it allows and encourages learners to build on what
they already know and go beyond the simple collection and memorization of information to develop
individualized internalized principles. Constructivism supports key constructs of CALL, collaboration
and negotiation of meaning. Collaboration provides opportunities for negotiation of meaning as
learners struggle to build new schemata and extend existing ones. The role of the teacher in a
constructivist model includes presenting opportunities for learning (repeating and rephrasing some
elements in spiral fashion) and encouraging reflective thinking in learners, partly through collaborative
peer activities. Constructivism may be traced back to humanist thinkers such as René Descartes (1595–
1650), but it is largely associated with the cognitive scientist George Kelly (1905–67).
 B. Hypermedia

Definition Examples of Hypermedia

• Hypermedia refers to For example:
similar links to those used A word or picture might have a link to a sound file giving
in hypertext, but instead its pronunciation. A video of a language-learning
of simply linking text to opportunity, such as a shopping excursion, might be
text, hypermedia involves linked to an animation that shows the same exchanges
simplified, omitting the distracting elements around
linking various media, the interactions between the shopper and the sales
such as sound, images, clerk. Or, an animation might focus on a related
animation and/or video. aspect, such as a review of the value of different
denominations of money.
C. Hypermedia
• The projects mentioned in the ALLP (see Section 2.3.3) would be classified
as hypermedia systems, although their creators (see Murray, 1995) classify
them as Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning (ICALL).
• ICALL differs from CALL in that it offers often dubiously labelled ‘intelligent’
feedback features that customize responses to learner input through
subroutines similar to the already mentioned Eliza program (see Section
2.3.5).
• Differences in positions on computer intelligence are only a matter of
semantics. While we do not expect a computer to think and converse
intelligently, it can have some features that appear to simulate intelligence.
C. Hypermedia
• The projects mentioned in the ALLP (see Section 2.3.3) would be classified
as hypermedia systems, although their creators (see Murray, 1995) classify
them as Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning (ICALL).
• ICALL differs from CALL in that it offers often dubiously labelled
‘intelligent’ feedback features that customize responses to learner input
through subroutines similar to the already mentioned Eliza program (see
Section 2.3.5).
• Differences in positions on computer intelligence are only a matter of
• semantics. While we do not expect a computer to think and converse
intelligently, it can have some features that appear to simulate
intelligence.
 D. Multimedia

Definition Multimedia Vs. Hypermedia

• Multimedia is a term that has • Thompson et al. (1992) offer a slightly different
essentially subsumed definition of hypermedia contrasting it to multimedia
hypermedia, but the original
difference was that where and suggest that the former has a pedagogical
hypermedia might only make perspective while the latter is simply a mode of
use of two types of media presentation. This definition also accords with the
(e.g. text + sound or text + structure of many of the multimedia programs on the
photographs) multimedia market, most of which tend to dictate a set path of
tends to feature several media instruction.
types including text, images,
sound, video and/or
animations.
D. Multimedia
• A.D. Thompson et al. on terminology:
. . . many educators are confusing hypermedia with multimedia and ignoring
the differences between the two. Whereas multimedia refers to the use of
a variety of media, hypermedia can be defined from the two words that
make up the term. Hyper means non-linear or random and media refers to
information represented in many formats. Educational technology futurist
Dede (1987) defined hypermedia as a framework for non-linear
representation of symbols. He considered hypermedia an external
associational memory where the technology provides assistance in
organizing and accessing information. Thompson et al. (1992: 57)
D. Multimedia: Encarta
• A type of program more likely to match Thompson et al.’s (1992)
interpretation of hypermedia would be a software reference tool such as
Microsoft’s discontinued encyclopaedia Encarta. In this, as in traditional
paper encyclopaedias, one is not expected to read through the materials
in a linear fashion but rather jump from topic to topic as need or interest
dictates. Also, within each of Encarta’s topics and definitions, one may well
choose to follow separate hyperlinks that lead to distinct areas of inquiry
just as one would follow a paper encyclopaedia’s linked subjects, often
indicated through words set in small capitals or bold.
D. Multimedia: Perceptions of the Programme Designers

• The difference, or advantage, of hypermedia is the possibility for easy access

to various links within a program; selected referents are only a keystroke away.
The word possibility has to be emphasized here; the design of interfaces differs
from program to program affecting their ease of use. Similarly, multimedia
links are selected and based on the perceptions of the program designer and
may not mirror the needs of the learner. A multimedia program, by Thompson
et al.’s (1992) definition, would be a program that uses several media, but only
along a fixed linear path. For example, a children’s storybook in which learners
must start at the first page and continue reading to the end may only use extra
media to provide incidental sound and visual effects to enhance the text. In a
multimedia version, one might read the story of Peter and the Wolf and have
opportunities to follow links and learn more about wolves or hear the Sergei
Prokofiev musical interpretation.
E. Science Fiction and CALL:

• Author William Gibson created the metaphor cyberspace in his 1984 science fiction
novel Neuromancer. Cyberspace retains its original (and poetic) definition as ‘a
consensual hallucination’ and ‘a graphic representation of data (i.e. hypertext,
hypermedia and multimedia)’ (Gibson, 1984: 51). The basic idea is that when
interactions take place online, such as within a simulated environment (see Section
2.3.5), they are taking place within cyberspace.
• The sense of cyberspace as a meeting place has been developed in other novels by
Gibson (1986, 1988) and Neal Stephenson (1995, 2000). In their virtual venues,
simulated worlds are created and machines given avatars or online personalities that
might be based on human forms, fanciful animals or even machines. In the novel
Snowcrash, based on ideas of the fall of a modern Tower of Babel, a vast
information/library database is given the appearance of a rumpled, friendly but almost
infinitely knowledgeable librarian (Stephenson, 2000). Humans in the novel project
themselves, or artistic interpretations of themselves, and interact as they would in the
real world.
E. Science Fiction and CALL 2:

• The use of human-like avatars was not far-fetched; the technology, although sometimes clumsy to
manipulate with a keyboard or mouse, is already in place and widely used in gaming situations and social
networking spaces such as Second Life (http://www.secondlife.com). The applications to CALL have not
been widely exploited, partly because of the cognitive overhead of teaching second-language students
how to use a service like Second Life outweighs any perceived benefits. However, for those already familiar
with and active in Second Life, it might be an interesting platform for second-language instruction.

• Conceptual ideas, along with electronic networks featuring services such as the WWW and physical
collections of data on CD-ROMs and DVDs, have fostered the growth of multimedia as new learning
resources, particularly for language learning. The principal qualities of multimedia that have made it useful
are the types of information (text, images, sound, animation, video) that can be stored and, more
importantly, the useful ways that multimedia can be used to search information, electronically developing
Dr Johnson’s second quality of knowledge after actually knowing a thing itself: knowing where to find it
(Boswell, 1791). The contrary argument is that the extensiveness of data available on media such as the
WWW has made searching more, not less, difficult.
E. Science Fiction and CALL 3:

Virtual words can provide platforms for educational interaction

F. CALL ‘s Jargon:

• Affordances are the visual clues that an object gives to its use as well as what it is
capable of doing in terms of both intended and unintended functions. A chair is for
sitting on and the size of the seat suggests that it might be comfortable for that
purpose, but the chair can also be stood upon or used as a weapon; these are
other affordances. Affordances can be both obvious and learned. But an object can
have both affordances and misaffordances.

• A misaffordance is something which distracts from an object’s intended use. A

misaffordance for a chair would be design features that disguised its purpose or
interfered with its central purpose of being comfortably sat upon. Misaffordances
are common in software programs where, for example,
• Flashing words or pictures distract from the purpose of reading.
F. CALL ‘s Jargon:

• Interface
Interface has already been mentioned in terms of Graphical User Interface (GUI). In pedagogical terms, an
interface is the aspects of a computer that allow the user to have sensory interaction with a program. The
screen can present an interface in many different ways, most of them controlled by a mouse cursor or by
keyboard commands. On screen, one can use a mouse and keyboard – or even a finger with touch screens
– for commands to press buttons, turn dials, move sliders and drag images and text from one place to
another. Drop down menus, such as on the Microsoft Windows interface, are a widely used interface tool.
Interfaces, like computers, are largely pan-cultural phenomena, similar the world over because of the need
for standardization and the reluctance of software and hardware manufacturers to localize products for
small audiences. However, some interfaces in countries such as China are often navigated with graphics
tablets on which the user can draw word characters. A few strokes often prompts one or more predicted
choices (e.g. Chinese words with a sense of liquid might be prompted by the three-drop radical
representing water) based on a combination of lexical context and what the program has learned from the
most frequent choices of the learners.
G. Applications to General Learning:

• From the point of view of the learner, there are three main advantages to hypertext:
1. A hypertext footnote can be traced backwards and forwards to the referent or reference respectively.
2. A hypertext section can be referenced in several places within the text reducing the need for paraphrasing
ideas that are used repetitively and ensuring consistency of information
3. A hypertext reference can be visible at the same time as the text to which it refers; in a book one might need to
turn to an appendix or even another book.
• Conklin (1987) lists other beneficial features, but these mostly pertain to authors of hypertext, for example:
ease of creating new references and the ability to structure information and customize documents. He also
includes collaboration as a beneficial function of hypertext authoring. Traditionally, authoring was
considered the domain of the professional/ commercial materials developer or the teacher acting as a
materials developer. However, most of these functions can also be useful for learners if they are given the
opportunity to create multimedia materials as part of their exploration of a knowledge base. An already
mentioned application of this is the ALLP project, Dans le quartier Saint Gervais (In the Neighbourhood of
Saint Gervais), that allows learners to make their own documentaries and multimedia documents from the
source materials.
H. Applications of Multimedia to Language Learning:***

• There are also additional advantages more central to language learning. For example, Montali and
Lewandowski (1996) review studies conducted with first-language secondary-school students favouring
multimedia as a way of improving reading skills among average and less-skilled readers. They suggest that
readers who enjoy reading tend to read more and are more motivated to read and that a computer can be
useful in promoting interest.

• Other advantages of hypertext and multimedia are in the promotion of autonomous language learning
(see Benson, 2010, Benson and Lor, 1998, Benson and Voller, 1997). Learners who can take advantage of
multimedia links to explore explanations and peripheral information can somewhat lower the teacher-
centredness of the classroom (i.e. learner dependence on the teacher as the sole source or arbitrator of
information). A well-formed multimedia database of materials can also assist those young and second
language learners who lack dictionary and library search skills.
H. Applications of Multimedia to Language Learning:***

• Examples of multimedia which distract the learner from the task are too common: inappropriate and
unnecessary interruptions, such as flashing screens and senseless noises are what Hoogeveen would label
incongruent.
• Hoogeveen (1995) suggests that learners’ responses to multimedia interact in a complex way giving
learners the feeling of experiencing information instead of simply acquiring it and improve:
• 1. learning (retention, understanding, knowledge acquisition), but also
• 2. the user-friendliness of user interfaces and thus man–machine interaction
• 3. the entertainment value of systems (i.e. more fun)
• 4. the impact of messages (e.g. during business presentations or commercials)
• (p. 351).
• Many of these advantages can be seen as following constructivist models of instruction but, as will be seen
in Chapter 7 in a discussion of models of learning, there are more complex dimensions to their place
within both behaviourist and constructivist models of instruction in the classroom.
Summary
• Hypertext, hypermedia and multimedia (now usually
subsumed under the term multimedia) are among the
special features of the computer that give it the potential to
offer something different (if not better) than traditional
teaching and learning materials. Because of its
pervasiveness in learning and online applications, the study
of the impact of multimedia has diminished, with current
interest usually focused on whatever among the latest
technical innovations might be turned towards learning. For
example, the creation of virtual worlds using avatars to
represent people in MOO-like virtual object situations (see
The Lost Moo Library at http://www.hayseed.net/MOO)
continues to develop in sophistication and in the
opportunities they present for interaction.