Me6501-Cad Ut-2

ME6501 - Computer Aided Design
Outfitted by : M.Pugalenthi, AP
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MOUNT ZION COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MZCET/MECH/III-A&B/CAD/UNIT-2 1
UNIT II- GEOMETRIC MODELING
Representation of curves- Hermite curve- Bezier curve- B-spline
curves-rational curves-Techniques for surface modeling – surface
patch- Coons and bicubic patches- Bezier and B-spline surfaces.
Solid modeling techniques- CSG and B-rep
Representing Curves and Surfaces
Introduction
• We need smooth curves and surfaces in many
applications:
– model real world objects
– computer-aided design (CAD)
– high quality fonts
– data plots
– artists sketches
Introduction
• Most common representation for surfaces:
– polygon mesh
– parametric surfaces
– quadric surfaces
• Solid modeling
• Polygon mesh:
– set of connected planar surfaces bounded by
polygons
– good for boxes, cabinets, building exteriors
– bad for curved surfaces
– errors can be made arbitrarily small at the cost of
space and execution time
– enlarged images show geometric aliasing
• Major types of curves:
– Hermit
• defined by two endpoints and two tangent vectors
– Bezier
• defined by two endpoints and two other points that
control the endpoint tangent vectors
– Splines
• several kinds, each defined by four points
• uniform B-splines, non-uniform B-splines, ß-splines
Representation of curves
 A smooth curve can be obtained from the large number of

data points.
 The two basic curve representation techniques are:
 Analytic curves
 Synthetic curves
Analytic curves
 Analytical equations or mathematical equations such as lines, circles and
conics are used for representing the Analytical curves.
Advantages:
 Evaluation of the intermediate points are precise and easy.
 Space taken for the storage of curve is compact.
 Evaluation of the curve properties such as slope and radius of curvature

are easy.
 Drawing of curve is easy from the storage data.
 Any change in the curve can be easily modified in the design criteria.
Analytical Curves
1- Non-parametric representation analytical curves
Line Y  mX  c
Circle X 2  Y 2  R2
X2 Y2
Ellipse
2
 2 1
a b
Parabola Y 2  4aX
Although non-parametric representations of curve equations are used in some
cases, they are not in general suitable for CAD because:
• The equation is dependent on the choice of the coordinate system
• Implicit equations must be solved simultaneously to determine points on
the curve, inconvenient process.
• If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight line
segments, the computations involved could be extensive.
Synthetic curves
 Synthetic curves are based on the method of the data points which is very
useful in designing the objects with curved shapes such as ship hull, car
body, aero foil section, automobile components, etc.
 Synthetic curves such as Bezier curves and splines are described by a set of
data points known as control points.
 The control points can be fitted using parametric polynomials. By changing
the position of the control points, synthetic curves provide a greater
flexibility to the designer.
Synthetic curves also suffer from the following disadvantages:
 The transformations of the curve becomes difficult to handle when
there are large number of data points involved.
 The interpolation techniques are used to obtain intermediate points,
which do not actually lie on the curve.
 Numerical differentiation method is used to obtain the slope of the
curve, which is an inaccurate procedure.
 Exact property of the curve cannot be obtained because of the
irregularity in the shape.
HERMITE CURVE:
 Hermite curve is determined by defining positions and tangent
vectors at the data points.
 Hermite curve is also known as cubic curve. Hermite curve passes
(interpolate) through the end points of the curve segment and
possesses first order (slope) continuity.
 Hermite curve segments are adjusted locally because shape of each
curve segment is dependent only upon its end point constraints.
 The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment id given by,
Continue…
 The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by,
1
Here,
S --- parameter
Ci --- the polynomial coefficient.
In scalar form, the above equation can be written as,
Continue…
 Equation -1 can be written in the expanded form as,
 Equation -3 can also be written in the matrix form,
where,
C --- coefficient vector
Continue…
 To find the coefficients Ci consider the cubic spline curve with the
two end points P0 and P1 as shown,
Continue…
 Applying boundary conditions and rearranging the solution we get,
where,
P0 , P1 , P0’, P1’ Geometric coefficients
The tangent vector becomes,
 The function of ‘S’ in above equations are called blending functions.
 The above equation shows that the curve shape can be controlled by
changing its end points or its tangent vectors.
 The curve is created as a blend of spline segments connecting the set
of points starting from P0 and ending at Pn-1.
 Differentiating the above equation, we obtain,
Shape control of Hermite curves:
There are three ways to modify / control the shape of Hermite
(cubic) curves, they are,
 Change in the location of the control points.
 Change in the magnitudes of the tangent vectors, keeping the same
directions.
 Change in the directions of the tangent vectors, keeping the same
magnitudes.
Limitations of Hermite curve:
 It is always difficult to select the magnitude as well as angle of the
tangent vectors at the two end points of the curve segment.
 Curves are difficult to control because of the global shape control
characteristics.
 The cubic curves never reduce exactly to a conic section and poorly
approximate asymptotic curves.
 A curve will be more flexible is more number of control points, could
be added, thus creating more curves which are all still of cubic order.
BEZIER CURVE:
 Bezier curves are another alternative to generate curves based on
the approximation techniques, and to produce the curves that do not
pass through the given data pointer.
Continue…
 The shape of the Bezier curve is obtained or determined by the

number or control points.
 Generally the bezier curve approximates the data points and

interpolates the end points.
 The position of the control points and vertices of Bezier

characteristics polygon is used to define the Bezier curve.
 The bezier curve follows the shape of characteristics polygon.
 The bezier curve is tangent to the first and last polygon segment of
the characteristic polygon.
Continue…
Continue…
Continue…
 Several four points Bezier characteristic polygons and the resulting

bezier curves are shown in figure.
 The positions of control points strongly affect the shape of the cubic
bezier curves.
 Mathematically for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by

the following polynomial of degree n:
Disadvantages of Bezier curves:
 The curve does not pass through the control points which may be
inconvenient to the designer.
 The bezier curve lacks local control. It only has the global control
nature.
 If one control point is changed, the whole curve changes. Thus the
designer cannot selectively change parts of the curve.
Difference between the Bezier curve and Hermite curve:
 Its defining points control the shape of the Bezier curve. It allows
relationship between the input and output parameters.
 Hermite curve is cubic in nature so the degree of polynomial are not
related to the number of control points. Where as the degree of
polynomial for the Bezier curve is variable and related to the number
of control points defining the curve.
 Bezier curve is smoother than Hermite curve because it has higher
order derivatives.
B-SPLINE CURVES:
 B-spline curves gives another effective method, besides that of
Bezier curves. Moreover B-spline curves are the proper and powerful
generalization of Bezier curves.
Continue…
 B-spline curve has the ability to interpolate of approximate a set of
given data points.
 In addition to Bezier curves, the B-spline curve separates the degree
of the resulting curve from the number of the given control points.
 The flexibility in the degree of the resulting curve is achieved by
choosing the blending function of B-spline curves with an additional
degree of freedom that does not exist in Bernstein polynomials.
Continue…
 Similar to Bezier curves, the B-spline curve defined by n+1 control
points Pi is given by,
where,
B- spline function
Advantages of B- spline curve:
 They provide local control of the curve shape as opposed to global
control by using a special set of blending (base) functions that
provide local influence.
 B-spline curves also provide the ability to add control points without
increasing the degree of the curve.
RATIONAL CURVES:
 A rational curve is defined by the algebraic ratio of two polynomials
while a nomenclature curve is defined by one polynomial.
 These curves draw their theories from protective geometry.
 Rational Bezier curves, rational B-spline and - spline curves, rational
ionic sections, rational cubics and rational surfaces have been
formulated.
 The most widely used rational curves are non uniform rational B-
splines (NURBS).
Geometric modeling
The mathematical description of the geometry of an object using a
software is called as Geometric modeling. By this Geometric modeling, it is
possible to display as well as manipulate the objects image on a graphical
screen.
 Interpretation of unexpected results

 Evaluations of CAD/CAM systems
 Innovative use of the tools in particular applications.
 Creation of new attributes, or modify the obtained
models to benefit new engineering applications.
 Understanding of terminology
The Role of Geometric Modeling in a CAD System
Basic Geometric Modeling Techniques
• 2-D Projection (Drawings)
• Wireframe Modeling
• Surface Modeling
Analytical Surface
Free-form, Curved, & Sculptured Surface
• Solid Modeling
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
Feature Based Modeling
Parametric Modeling
Wire-frame Modeling:
 This is one of the most popular and commonly used method

of geometric modeling.
 In construction of wire frame model, the edges of an object
are presented as lines.
 The wire frame models are more clear than 2-D
representation.
 The main drawback in terms of representation of object in
wire frame model is lack of clarity.
 When part geometry is complex and in case of 3-D wire
frame systems, the hidden lines causes the image to be
confusing to the viewer.
Wire-frame Modeling:
 When part geometry is complex and in case of 3-D wire
frame systems, the hidden lines causes the image to be
confusing to the viewer.
 During surface definition, there might be confusion. By
eliminating hidden lines, some clarity can be obtained.
 Wire frame modeling is used for following representations.
2-D Representation
Orthographic views representation i.e., plan, elevation
and side view.
Difference between 2-D Wire Frame Model & 3-D Wire Frame
Model:
S.No 2-D Wire Frame Model 3-D Wire Frame Model
The coordinate system is 2-d 3-D Co-ordinate system is used for

1 coordinate system i.e. x and y representing objects; x, y and z co-
co-ordinates only. ordinates are used.
3-Dimesional wire Frame Both 2-D and 3 Dimensional wire
2
system generation is difficult. frame generation is possible.
Difficult for the viewer to interpret
Hidden lines may not
3 the figure unless the hidden lines
complicate the figure.
are removed
Curved surfaces are indicated Curved surfaces are represented by
4
by circles, arcs and ellipses. spaced generators.
Different coordinate systems are
This model uses only global
5 used to creates the required
co-ordinate system
features.
SURFACE MODELLING:
 The technique of representation of objects (or) components

by surface is called surface modeling.
 In this surface modeling, objects (solid objects) can be
clearly interpreted by the user (viewer).
Continue…
 The major drawback here is that, no data is available about

the interior or solid.
 Moreover, mass property and inertia property calculation
would be difficult.
 This surface modeling application is for modeling car-bodies,
ships, aerospace structure, dies, etc.
 The advanced surface modeling techniques like B-splines and
NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines) are used for
creating surfaces.
Continue…
The standard surfaces for modeling include

Box:
 Box is a three-dimensional solid specified by length, center

and corner.
Continue…
Pyramid wedge:
 A 3D solid with a sloped face tapering along the x-axis.

Cone:
 A solid primitive with a circular or elliptical base tapering

symmetrically to a point (vertex) perpendicular to its base.
Continue…
Sphere:
 A 3D solid positioned in such a way that its central axis us parallel

to z-axis of UCS (user co-ordinate system).
Torus:
 A torus is defined by two radius values, one for the tube and the
other for the torus center to center of tube.
The techniques available for surface modeling are:
 Surface patch
 Coons patch
 Bicubic patch
 Bezier surfaces
 B-spline surfaces
Surface Patch:
 The building blocks of the surface are known as patch.

Generally u and v are the two variables used for representing
a patch.
 A patch is biparametric, values ranging between 0 and 1.
 For creating Curves patches, one of the parametric variable
is fixed.
Coons Patch:
 A coons patch is a result of interpolation done on

intersecting mesh of curves, resulting in rectangular grid of
patches.
 The simplest of coons patch is the linearly blended coons
patch. This patch id defined by 4 boundary curves and corner
points of patch.
Bicubic patch:
 In order to define the surfaces using point and tangent,

bicubic patch is referred.
 The general form of bicubic patch is,
Bezier surface:
 This bezier surfaces and polygons are represented in the

above figure.
 In bezier curves, it is possible to convert the straight surface
to smooth surface between patches.
 A bezier surface is given by,
B-spline Surface:
 In this surface, a characteristic polygon passes through

center points of polygon with its edges tangential to the
polygon edge.
 The general form for B-spline surface is:
Why solid modeling?
 Recall weakness of wireframe and surface modeling
 Ambiguous geometric description
 incomplete geometric description
 lack topological information
 Tedious modeling process
 Awkward user interface
Solid model
 Solid modeling is based on complete, valid and unambiguous

geometric representation of physical object.
 Complete  points in space can be classified.(inside/ outside)
 Valid vertices, edges, faces are connected properly.
 Unambiguous  there can only be one interpretation of

object
Continue…
 Analysis automation and integration is possible only with solid
models has properties such as weight, moment of inertia,
mass.
 Solid model consist of geometric and topological data
 Geometry  shape, size, location of geometric elements
 Topology connectivity and associatively of geometric elements

non graphical, relational information
Solid model representation schemes
1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
2. Boundary representation Method (B-rep)
3. Half-space Method
4. Analytical Solid Modeling (ASM)
5. Primitive instancing
6. Sweep representation
7. Spatial enumeration
8. Instantiation.
Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
 Objects are represented as a combination of simpler solid objects

(primitives).
 The primitives are such as cube, cylinder, cone, torus, sphere etc.
 Copies or “instances” of these primitive shapes are created and

positioned.
 A complete solid model is constructed by combining these

“instances” using set specific, logic operations (Boolean)
Continue…
 Boolean operation
 each primitive solid is assumed to be a set of points, a boolean
operation is performed on point sets and the result is a solid
model.
 Boolean operation  union, intersection and difference
 The relative location and orientation of the two primitives have
to be defined before the boolean operation can be performed.
 Boolean operation can be applied to two solids other than the

primitives.
Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
boolean operation
• Union
– The sum of all points in each of two defined
sets. (logical “OR”)
– Also referred to as Add, Combine, Join, Merge
A B
AB
boolean operation
• Difference
– The points in a source set minus the points
common to a second set. (logical “NOT”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as subtraction, remove, cut
A B
A-B
Constructive solid geometry
(CSG)- boolean operation
• intersection
– Those points common to each of two defined
sets (logical “AND”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as common, conjoin
A B
AB
Constructive solid geometry
(CSG)- boolean operation
• When using boolean operation, be careful
to avoid situation that do not result in a
valid solid
A B
AB
boolean operation
• Boolean operation
– Are intuitive to user
– Are easy to use and understand
– Provide for the rapid manipulation of large
amounts of data.
• Because of this, many non-CSG systems also
use Boolean operations
Constructive solid geometry (CSG)- data
structure
• Data structure does not define model shape explicitly but
rather implies the geometric shape through a procedural
description
– E.g: object is not defined as a set of edges & faces but by the
instruction : union primitive1 with primitive 2
• This procedural data is stored in a data structure referred

to as a CSG tree
• The data structure is simple and stores compact data 
easy to manage
CSG tree
• CSG tree  stores the history of applying
boolean operations on the primitives.
– Stores in a binary tree format
– The outer leaf nodes of tree represent the
primitives
– The interior nodes represent the boolean
operations performed.
CSG tree
not unique
• More than one procedure (and hence database)
can be used to arrive at the same geometry.
Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
representation
• CSG representation is unevaluated
– Faces, edges, vertices not defined in explicit
• CSG model are always valid
– Since built from solid elements.
• CSG models are complete and unambiguous
Constructive solid geometry (CSG) - advantage
 CSG is powerful with high level command.
 Easy to construct a solid model – minimum step.
 CSG modeling techniques lead to a concise database less

storage.
 This method is advantageous in the initial creation of solid models.

Using basic boolean operations, it is easy to constract solid models
precisely.
 Complete history of model is retained and can be altered at any

point.
 Can be converted to the corresponding boundary representation.

Constructive solid geometry (CSG) - disadvantage
 Only boolean operations are allowed in the modeling process  with

boolean operation alone, the range of shapes to be modeled is
severely restricted  not possible to construct unusual shape.
 Requires a great deal of computation to derive the information on the

boundary, faces and edges which is important for the interactive
display/ manipulation of solid.
 This method involves more computational work for creating a solid

model.
 For complicated solid geometry, this method is not appropriate.
Feature based Design
Extrude:
 This is very much important concept, which is essential for

understanding about creation of solid.
 In CAD, for 2-dimensional objects, the sketch is drawn using
some basic Auto-CAD commands such as lines, arcs, splines,
circles, rectangles etc.
Feature based Design
 However for drawing a 3-dimensional object, one should
create the features one by one accurately and thereby
obtain comprehensive part geometry.
 Features include, cut, rib, hole, chamfer, pipe, offset and so
on. Features are the building blocks for a design. If any
change is encountered in the design of the object, features
adapt and get adjusted automatically according to these
design changes.
Sketched Featured Method
Extrude:
 This is a method of defining a volume by extruding the sketched

cross-section along the axis normal to section plane.
Sweep:
 The method of defining a volume by sweeping a sketched cross
section along a trajectory is called sweep.
(i) Linear Sweep:
 Used for plane surface creation
(ii) Rotational sweep:
 In this technique, lines (or) rectangles (or) any planes are
revolved around a central reference line to generate cylinders,
cones etc.
 If a rectangle is swept, cylinder is generated. If a triangle is
swept, cone is generated.
Blend:
 The method of defining a volume by connecting planar sections

at their edges.
Cut:
 The method of removing solid material from a component. CUT

can be done using the following ways:
(1) Extrude (2) Sweep (3) Revolve (4) Blend
Hole:
 This method is used to create the types of axially revolved cut out
geometries.
solution
• CSG representation tends to accompany the
corresponding boundary representation 
hybrid representation
• Maintaining consistency between the two
representations is very important.
Boundary representation (B-Rep)
• Solid model is defined by their enclosing

surfaces or boundaries. This technique
consists of the geometric information about
the faces, edges and vertices of an object with
the topological data on how these are
connected.
Boundary representation (B-Rep)
• Why B-Rep includes such topological
information?
- A solid is represented as a closed space in
3D space (surface connect without gaps)
- The boundary of a solid separates points
inside from points outside solid.
B-Rep vs surface modeling
• Surface model
– A collection of surface entities which simply
enclose a volume lacks the connective data to
define a solid (i.e topology).
• B- Rep model
– Technique guarantees that surfaces definitively
divide model space into solid and void, even after
model modification commands.
B-Rep data structure
• B-Rep graph store face, edge and vertices as

nodes, with pointers, or branches between
the nodes to indicate connectivity.
Boundary representation- validity
• System must validate topology of created

solid.
• B-Rep has to fulfill certain conditions to
disallow self-intersecting and open objects
• This condition include
– Each edge should adjoin exactly two faces and
have a vertex at each end.
– Vertices are geometrically described by point
coordinates
Continue…
• This condition include

– At least three edges must meet at each vertex.
– Faces are described by surface equations
– The set of faces forms a complete skin of the solid
with no missing parts.
– Each face is bordered by an ordered set of edges
forming a closed loop.
– Faces must only intersect at common edges or
vertices.
– The boundaries of faces do not intersect themselves
• Validity also checked through mathematical
evaluation
– Evaluation is based upon Euler’s Law (valid for
simple polyhedra – no hole)
–V–E+F=2 V-vertices E- edges F- face loops
v5 V = 5, E = 8, F = 5
f3 f2 E3 5–8+5=2
E4
E1 v4 E7
f4 v3
f5 E2 E6
E8 f1
v1 E5 v2
• Expanded Euler’s law for complex polyhedrons
(with holes)
• Euler-Poincare Law:
– V-E+F-H=2(B-P)
– H – number of holes in face, P- number of passages or through
holes, B- number of separate bodies.
V = 24, E=36, F=15, H=3, P=1,B=1
Boundary representation- ambiguity
and uniqueness
• Valid B-Reps are unambiguos
• Not fully unique, but much more so than CSG
• Potential difference exists in division of
– Surfaces into faces.
– Curves into edges
Boundary representation- advantages
• Capability to construct unusual shapes that would not be possible
with the available CSG aircraft fuselages, swing shapes
• Less computational time to reconstruct the image
• This method is very powerful for creating complex shapes solid

models.
• B-rep model can be easily converted into wire frame model system.
• B-rep system stores an explicit definition of the model boundaries.
Boundary representation-
disadvantages
• Requires more storage
• More prone to validity failure than CSG
• Model display limited to planar faces and
linear edges
• This concept cannot be applied for tool
path generation.
- complex curve and surfaces only approximated
Solid object construction method
• Sweeping
• Boolean
• Automated filleting and chambering
• Tweaking
– Face of an object is moved in some way
Modeling tools includes
Sketching
Part creation
Assembling
Documentation
Sketching:
 Any 3-Dimensional geometry involving a complex definition
and individual shape requires a 2-D sketch.
 Sketches are required for all types of protrusion and cuts.
Parts Creation:
 Using the features such as cuts, protrusion, chamfer, rounding,
holes and other features, parts are created.
 Any information regarding the part can be obtained in sketcher
mode.
 Similarly the sketched features can be modified and the
relationship can be set between features.
Assembling :
 After the sketch for individual parts of a complex geometry is
completed, the solid modeler combines the parts for making an
assembly.
Parts Creation:
 Finally, the design of the assembly is taken print out using printer /
plotter. While documenting, suitable tolerances could also be
provided.

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ME6501 - Computer Aided Design

 A smooth curve can be obtained from the large number of

 The two basic curve representation techniques are:

 Evaluation of the intermediate points are precise and easy.

 Space taken for the storage of curve is compact.

 Evaluation of the curve properties such as slope and radius of curvature

 Drawing of curve is easy from the storage data.

body, aero foil section, automobile components, etc.

data points known as control points.

 The control points can be fitted using parametric polynomials. By changing

the position of the control points, synthetic curves provide a greater

flexibility to the designer.

 The transformations of the curve becomes difficult to handle when

there are large number of data points involved.

 The interpolation techniques are used to obtain intermediate points,

which do not actually lie on the curve.

 Numerical differentiation method is used to obtain the slope of the

curve, which is an inaccurate procedure.

 Exact property of the curve cannot be obtained because of the

irregularity in the shape.

 Hermite curve is determined by defining positions and tangent

vectors at the data points.

 Hermite curve is also known as cubic curve. Hermite curve passes

(interpolate) through the end points of the curve segment and

possesses first order (slope) continuity.

 Hermite curve segments are adjusted locally because shape of each

curve segment is dependent only upon its end point constraints.

 The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment id given by,

 The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by,

 Equation -1 can be written in the expanded form as,

 Equation -3 can also be written in the matrix form,

C --- coefficient vector

 Applying boundary conditions and rearranging the solution we get,

The tangent vector becomes,

changing its end points or its tangent vectors.

 The curve is created as a blend of spline segments connecting the set

of points starting from P0 and ending at Pn-1.

 Differentiating the above equation, we obtain,

There are three ways to modify / control the shape of Hermite

(cubic) curves, they are,

 Change in the location of the control points.

 Change in the magnitudes of the tangent vectors, keeping the same

 Change in the directions of the tangent vectors, keeping the same

 It is always difficult to select the magnitude as well as angle of the

tangent vectors at the two end points of the curve segment.

 Curves are difficult to control because of the global shape control

approximate asymptotic curves.

 A curve will be more flexible is more number of control points, could

 Bezier curves are another alternative to generate curves based on

the approximation techniques, and to produce the curves that do not

pass through the given data pointer.

 The shape of the Bezier curve is obtained or determined by the

 Generally the bezier curve approximates the data points and

 The position of the control points and vertices of Bezier

 The bezier curve follows the shape of characteristics polygon.

 Several four points Bezier characteristic polygons and the resulting

 Mathematically for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by

inconvenient to the designer.