2.1. Representation of Curves: Geometric Modeling
2.1. Representation of Curves: Geometric Modeling
2.1. Representation of Curves: Geometric Modeling
GEOMETRIC MODELING
2.2 Computer
(a) Explicit:
This representation provides a mapping from a free paramctcr to the set of points on
the curve. The explicit form of a curve in two dimensions gives the value of one variable,
It may be a dependent variable in terms of the other or independent variable. A
mathematiq function y =J(x) can be plotted as a curve. Such mction is the explicit
representation curve. The explicit representation is not general since it cannot
represent vertical lines and it is also a single-valued. For cach value of x, only a single
value ofy is normally computed by the ftlnction.
(b) Intplicit:
ffs representation defines the set of points on a curvc by giving a procedure that can
test to see if a point is on the curve. Usually, an implicit curvc in two dimension is defined
by an implicit function of the form f (x, y) = 0 so that the curve is a sct of points for which
this equation is true. It is very important that the implicit function is a scalar function (it
returns a single real number). It can represent multi-valued curves (more than one y value
Aided Design and Manufacturin
for an value). A common example is the circle whose implicit representation is x 2 + y& =
R2. In three dimensions, the implicit form isfix, y, z) = 0.
where x and y are co-ordinates Of the points on the curve which are the functions ofa
parameter u and the parametric variable is constrained in the interval.
In three dimensions, the parametric curve may be represented as follows.
One of the advantages of the parametric form is that it is the same in two and three
dimensions. In the fonner case, the equation for z is simply dropped.
Modeling 2.3
The parametric tilnetion is a vector valued fitnetion which returns n vector (n point
For xvorking in 2D. theN wilt be 2 vectors but in 3D thetv would be 3 vectors. Some curves can
be easily in both explicit and ituplieit For e,xatnple, a with its center at the
origin and radius I can be written in ituplieit torm given by
Different representations of curves have their own advantages and disadvantages. For
example, parametric curves are much easier to dnw because we can sample the free parameter.
Generally, parametric forms are the most commonly used in computer graphics since they are
easier to handle.
Geometric
2.1.2. Free form or Synthetic Curves
Three dimensional curves play an important Il)le in engineering, design and manufacture of a
diverse range of products such as automobiles, ship hulls, aircraft fuselages and wings, propeller
blades, shoes etc. They also play an invortant role in the description and Interpretation of physical
phenomena, för exan1ple, in geology, physics and tnedieal science. These products and science
require free form or synthetic curves and surtilees. The synthetie curves design is necessary on the
following situations.
In the second case, the designer would require to represent a eutxe which is directly related to
data points. Also, the curve is flexible enough to bend, twist or change the curse shape by
changing one or more data points. Here, data points are usually called control Pints. Any curve is
specified by these control points which indientes the genebll shape ot' the curve. The curve itself is
called interpolant if it passes through all data points, The curve IS defined, modified and
manipulated with operations on the control points.
Centers
The synthetic or free form curves are required to pass through given data points Therefore,
polynomials are the typical form Of these curves. To ensure a smooth transition from one section
of synthetic or free form curve to the next, various continuity conditi0nS are imposed at control
points. The order of continuity is very impofiant when a complex modeled by joining several
curve segments. Zero order continuity (d) means simply that the curves meet. First order
continuity means that the first parametric derivatives Of the
Geometric
Modo/ing
coordinate functions for two succcssivc curve sections are cqual at their joining points. second
order continuity (C) refcrs that both first und second paralnctric dcrivatives of two
sections arc the same at the intersection. Therefore, first and sccond ordcr continuitics imply
slope and curvature continuous curves respectively. A first order continuity is thc minimum
acceptable curve for engineering design.
One of the popular methods of interpolation is to use Lagrangian polynomial which is the
unique polynomial degree of n passing through n+l points. But, it is unsuitable in modeling the
curves because they tend to oscillate about control points, they are COmPUtationally
inconvenient and they are uneconomical of storing curve in the computer. A CUbiCPOIynomial
is the minimutn-order polynomial that can guarantee the generation of these curves. In addition,
the cubic polynomial is the lowest-degree polynomial that permits the inflection within a curve
segment and it allows the representation of non-planar threcdimensional curves in space. The
various forms of synthctic curves arc explained in detail in the following scctions.
Aided Design and Manufacturin
2.6 Compu ter
where x component of P is x(u) = axu 3 + bxu2 + cxu + dx and similarly, for the y and z
coordinates.
+ bzu2 + czu + dz
For each of these three equations, the values of four coefficients a, b, c, and d need to be
determined in the polynomial representation for each of n curve sections between n control
points. It can be done by setting enough boundary conditions at joints between curve sections so
that the numerical values for all coefficients can be obtained.
The Hermiteform of a cubic spline is obtained by defining positions and tangent vectors at
control points. Hermite splines can be locally adjusted because each curve section is only
dependent on its endpoint constraints. As stated earlier, there are four conditions required to
determine the coefficients of the cubic curve equation. A Hermite cubic results when these
coefficients are the positions of two end points and the two tangent vectors at
Modeling 2.7
Geometric
Thcrcfore, thc Hcrmite cubic splinc is considered as one form of the general parametric
cubic spline.
If p(u) represents a parametric cubic point function for the curve section bctwccn end
points pn and pn+l, then the boundary conditions that define this Hermite curve section are
whcrc P',j and P',t+l arc the parametric derivatives (slope of the curve) at end
points Pn and Pn+l respectively.
(2.3)
OOla
1 1
010•c
3210d
Aided Design and Manufacturin
Solving this equation for the polynomial coefficients,
Manufacturing
2.8 Computer Aided Design and
-9 1
-3
3 -2
o 0
It is the inverse of the boundary constraint matrix. Therefore, equation (2.3) can be written in
terms of the boundary conditions as
(2.6)
The expressions for the Hermite blending functions can be obtained by carrying out the
matrix manipulation of above equation (2.6) and collecting the coefficients for the boundary
constraints. It yields the polynomial equation for a single cubic spline segment as
+ P'n+l (u —u ) (2.7)
Geometric
o
HO (u) + Pn+l HI (u) +P'nH2 (u) + H3 (u)
where P,t, P„+l, P'n, P'n+l are called geonzetric coefficients. The polynomials Hn (u) forn
= 0, l, 2, 3 are referred as blending functions because they blend the boundary constraint values
(endpoint coordinates and slopes) to obtain each coordinate position along the -curve'
Modeling 2.9
+ (3u2 — 2u)
OsuSl (2.8)
In matrix form, equation (2.8) can be written as
= [u3 u2 (2.9)
Equation (2.5) is for a single cubic spline segment which passes through end points u = 0 and
u = l. It also shows that the curve's shape can be controlled by changing its end points or its
tangent vectors. The equation (2.5) can be generalised for any two adjacent spline segments of a
spline curve which are to fit a given number of control points. Figure 2.3 shows a cubic spline
connecting four points.
Aided Design and Manufacturin
Hemite polynomials can be useful for some digitizing applications where it may not be too
difficult to specify or approximate the curve slopes.
Solved Problems
2.
2.1. on Hermlte Curve
Problem 2.1
Determine the parametric equation for a cubic spline curve if (i) PO= PI and P', and
(ii) PO = PI and P'] P %
2.1 Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design and
0
O Solution: 2
= (2u3 - + u)
P(u) = PO + (2u3 - 3u2 + u) Ans.
Case (ii):
Substituting these values PO = PI and Pfi = — P '0 in the same equation,
P(u) = PO (2u3 — 3112 + l) + PO (—2u3 + 3112) + P 'o (u3 — 2u2 + u) — PPO (u3 — 112)
Ans.
Problem 2.2
Plot the Hermit cubic curve having end points PO (1, 3) and PI (7, 2). The tangent
vector for end PO is defined by a line joining PO and another point P2 (10, 8) whereas the
tangent vector for end PI is defined by a line joining PI and another point P3 (6' 0)• Also
plot the curve if the point P3 is changed to (9, 6) with the other things remaining the same'
Also solve the given problem to find the value at the midpoint of a Hermit curve using
Hermit matrix ntethod.
Given data:
-2
Geometric
Alodet:ng
= 075-=3.38
Bezier curve was developed by Pierre Be:ier at French ear company "Renault
Automobile Company". He used these curves to design automobile bodies. Bezier curve
have a number of properties which make them highly useftil and convenient for curve and
surface
A Bezier curve provides the reasonable design flexibility and avoids large number of
calculation. They are also easy to implement. For these reasons, Bezier curves are widely
available in various CAD systems. Most graphics software includes a pen tool for drawing paths
with Bezier curves.
Geometric Modeling
which uniquely defines the curves shape. Bezier curve section can be fitted to any number of
control points. The number of control points to be approximated and their relative position
determine the degree of the Bezier polynomial.
Figure 2.6 shows a Bezier curve which has four control points (PI, P2, P3 and po Dashed
lines connect the control point positions which fonns the characteristics polygon, Only, first and
last control points or vertices of the characteristics polygon actually lie on the curve. The other
two vertices define the order derivates and shape of the curve. The curve is always tangent to first
and last polygon segments. Examples of two-dimensional Bezier curves generated from three,
four, and five control points are shown in Figure 2.7.
PI
(b)
PI
(c) (d)
po
(2.15)
1-0 where P(u) is any point on the curve and Pi is a control point which
describes the path of an aPproximating Bezier polynomial function between PO and Pn. B, n (u)
are the Bezier blending functions, called Bernstein polynonlials. Thus, Bezier curves have a
Bernstein basis.
n!
Geometric Modeling
. (2.17) i!(n—i)!
The equation (2.12) can be expressed with the recursive calculation as follows with B(i
and Bo.i = (l —
expanded as follows.
Bl,3 (u) =
The fonn of the blending functions determine how the control points influence the shape of
the curve for values of parameter u over the range from 0 to l. At u = 0, the only non-zero
blending function is Bo, 3 which has the value l, At u = l, the only non-zero blending function is
B3, 3 with a value of I qt that point. Thus, the cubic Bezier curve will always,paSS through the
control points PO and P3.
At the end positions of the cubic Bezier curve, the parametric first derivatives (slopes)
arc
P'(O) = 3(Pl -PO),
P'(l) = 3(P3 - P2) and the parametric
by
The degree of the polynomial defining the curve segment is one less that the number defines
the polygon points. Therefore, for 4 control points, the degree of the polynomial is three, i.e.
cubic polynomial,
Bezier CUIves exhibit a symmctry property. The curve is symmetric with respect to u and
(1<1). Therefore, thc sequence of control points defining the curve can be reversed without
change of the curvc shape.
2.20 Co mputerAided Design and Manufacturing
7. Each control point is weighted by its blending function for each u value.
8. The curve shape can be modified either by changing one or more vertices of
polygon or keeping the polygon fixed and specifying multiple coincident points
vertex.
9. A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its characteristic
polygon or choosing Bo and Bn to be coincident.
Geometric Modeling
10. The curve lies entirely within the convcx hull formed by four control points.
I l . The curve is Invariant under an affine tnnsformation but thcy are not invariant under
projectivc transformations.
12. The curve exhibits thc variation diminishing propcrty. It means that the curve does not
oscillatc about any straight line more often which defines the polygon.
In this case, n =3
9 Solution:
Case (i):
From equation (2.20), the simplified form of parametric equation of Bezier curve is
qui (l- )
so, the parametric equation for Bezier curve can be expanded as
P(u) = po.3co.u0(1 -u)3 + Pl.3Cl.ul (l 1 + P2.3C2.u2 (l - 2+ P3.3C3.u
From equation (2.17),
n!
= 3 and -l
P(u) = PO (l -u)3 + Plx3xu (l - + P2x3xu2 (1 3
- + 3P2u2 (l - u) + P) u3
... (2.23)
Substituting of = 3, Pyl = 6, Pv2 = 0 and Py3 = 2 in equation (2.23),
PI(5, 6)
P3(7, 2)
Modeling 2.23
Table 2.3 Values ofu(x) and u(y)
Bez •
-l 3 -3
3 —6 3
—3 3 0 0
1 o o o
—I
-6 3
-3
1
For x values,
-l 3 -3
3 —6 3
Px(u) = [113 112 u l] •—3 3
I o o
Substituting of Pao = 7and u = 0.5
3 -3
-6 3 3 oo o
Px(O.5) —3
2.24
- Computer
Py(u) = [u3 2
and
[0.5
Substituting of PVO —
Py(0.5) = [0.53
- [0.5 0.5x9+1x3 = 2.87
Plot the Bezier curve having end points PO (2, 2) and P3 (15, 3). The other control
points are PI (6, 8) and P2 (12, 10). Tabulate the valuesfor seven points on the Bezier
curve
tric Modeling
= --3tC+3U
The graph
through it.
which defines the curve. The only way to reduce the the
number of vertices and vice versa.
2. Bezier curve is considervd as n single curve controlled by 011 control point\i, of this, with
an increase in the nutnber Ots contml points, the order oc polynotniiit representing the curve
incteasess It inetvases the cotuplexi(y ol' calculation.
B-Spline curves provide another elTeetive nwthod ol' generating CIII'VCN defined by
polygons. In fact, B-spline curves are the tuost widely used class
Moreover, it is a proper and powerful geneuition o? Bezier curves,
Bernstein basis as a special ease. Bespline basis is generally non gtobnl, The non behaviour of B-
spline curves is due to the (net thnt each vertex is ussocilt(ed with oniqu€'
function. The B-spline exhibits loeul control over the order Ots the l)ANih
Therefore, whenever a single vertex is moved, only those vertices will be while the rest
remains the same, The degree of the curves be changed without changing the number of defining
polygon vertices, B-spline hilV0 t11C ol)ility to Interpolate or approximate o set of given points.
2.3 Computer Aided Design and
0
Manufacturing
Let P(u) be the position vectors along the curve as a function of the parameter u.
Then, a B-Spline curve is given by
0 u umar
where the Pi are an input set of n + I control points and Bi,k (u) are the normalized B.
spline basis functions.
There are two major differences between equation (2.6) and equation (2.28).
1. The parameter k control the degree (k—l) of the resulting B-spline curve
and it is usually independent of the number of control points. The
parameter k can be chosen to be any integer value in the range from 2 up
to the number of control points, n + l.
2. The range of parameter u now depends on how we choose the B-spline
parameters. The maximum limit of the paramctcr u is no longer unity as it
was so chosen arbitrarily for Bezier curves.
For i normalized B-spline basis function of order k (degree k—l), the basis functions
l. Partition ofunity:
(u) = I . This property ensures that the relationship between the curve and its
2, Positivity:
Bi,k (u) 0. This property guarantees that thc curvc scgmcnt lies completely within the convex
hull ofPi. 3. Local support:
Bi.k (u) = 0 if u [tii, 1/01-+1]. This property indicates that each control point affects only k curve
segments.
4. Continuity:
The polynomial curve has degree k—l and d-2 continuity over the range of u. Therefore, Bi,k
(u) is (k—2) times continuously differentiable.
7. Each section of the spline curve (between two successive knot values) is influenced by k
control points.
8. Any one control point can affect the shape of at most k curve sections.
Formally, B-spline curve is defined as a polynomial spline function of order k (degree k-l)
since it satisfies the following two conditions.
(i) The function P(u) is a polynomial of degree k—l an each interval u Stii+l
(ii) P(u) and .its derivatives of order 1,2, k—2 are all continuous over the entire curve.
2. The B-spline curves do not pass through the first and last cont-ol points except when the
linear blending functions are used.
3. B-splines allow to vary the number of control points used to design a curve without
changing the degree of the polynomial. Also, any number of control points can be
added or modified to manipulate curve shapes.
po
4. A non-periodic B-spline curve pass through the first and last control points and it is
tangent to the first and last segments of the control polygon shown in Figure I
5. As number of degree of curve increases, the curve tightens show,-n in Figure 2.12 if the
degee of curve is less the control points '*ill be closer. k = l, a zcro degree curve results and
the curve then becomes the control points themselves.
PO
p,
Figure 2.13
8. Multiple control points results the regions of high curvature of a B-spline curve. Figure 2.14
shows this property of the curve.
9. As the dcgrcc of curve increases, it will be more difficult to control and calculate accurately.
Thus, a cubic B-spline curve is sufficient for many applications.
pa
Uniform B-splines have periodic blending functions. So, for given values of n and k,
all blending functions have the same shape. Each successive blending function is simply a
shifted vcrsion of the previous function.
Open and Closed B-spline Curves unitörtn B-spline curve is a cross between
uniform B-splines and non-uniform B Sometimes, it is treated as a special type of uniform
B-spline and sometimes, it is to be the non-uniform B-spline. For the open
uniform B-splines or simply open Bthe kmot spacing is uniform except at ends where knot
values are repeated k times,
following are two examples of open uniform, integer knot vectors and each with a
e:tiag value of 0,
for k = 2 and n = 3
for k = 4 and n = 4
These Imot vectors can be normalized to the unit interval from 0 to l,
{0, o, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 0.75, for k = 2 and n = 3
Open uniform B-spline curves have similar characteristics as Bezier curves. When I (degree
of the polynomial is n), open B-splines are reduced to Bezier splines and all Laot values
are either 0 or l .
Polynomial curve for an open B-spline passes through the first and last
control Also, the slope of the parametric curves at the first control point IS
parallel to the line
the first two control points. Similarly, the parametric slope at the last control point Parallel to
the line connecting the last two control points. Thus, geometric constraints for Oktclung curve
sections are the same as for Bezier curves.
2.36 Computer Aided Design and
Manufacturing
The difference between open and closed B-spline curves is in the choice of the knots
and the basis functions. Closed B-spline curve utilizes the periodic B-spline fimctions• as
their basis functions with knots at the integer. These basis functions are cyclic interprets
of a single canonical function with an interval of k for support.
0 S us n + 1
The mod (n + l) in the above equation is the modulo function which is defined as
pod
Figure 2.15 Closed B-spline curve
Geometiic Modeling
by $Cifying four of thc six control points shown at each step. If any thtve
consecutive points are identical, the curve passes through the same coordinate
positions
L4.4. Cubic B-spline Curves cubic periodic B-spline curves are cotumonly used in CAD
packages. eut»es, and each blending function span four subintervals of the total range
of u: If we are to tit the cubic to four control points, then we eould use the integer knot
vector and vessunvnee discussed earlier to obtain the periodic blending functions,
The characteristic matrix can be easily obtained by starting with the boundary
eondttions and they attain the blending functions normalized to the interval 0 S u S l, The
boundary conditions for periodic cubic B-splines with four conseeutive eontml points,
labeled andP3, are
1
61
6
1
2
1
2
These boundary conditions are similar to cardinal spliness
A matrix formulation for a cubic periodie B.spline with tiDut• eontNl points eau
written as
3
-6 MB =
4
2.38 ComputerAided Design and
Manufacturing
This matrix can be obtained by solving for the coefficients in a general cubic
polynomial expression using thc specified four boundary conditions. The cubic B-spline
curve defined by four control points is identical to the cubic Bezier curve defined by the
same points.
(Il)
Bi,k (u) =
The above equations (2.31) and (2.32) show that the rational B-spline basis functi0nS
and curves are a generalization of non-rational B-spline basis functions. If we substitute I
in
(2.32), Bi,k (u) = Ri,k (u). The rational basis function has nearly all analytic
•metric characteristics of their non rational B-spline countel•parts. In particular,
I Each rational basis function is positive or zero for all parameter values i.e., Bi,k 2 0
2. The sum of the rational B-spline basis functions for any parameter value u is one,
i.e. ± Bi,k (u ) =- l
3. Except for k = I, each rational basis function has precisely one maximum.
4. A rational B-spline curve of order k (degree k—l) is d-2 continuous everywhere.
5. The maximum order of the rational B-spline curve is equal to the number of defining polygon
vertices.
Rational splines have the following two important advantages compared to non-rational
l. Rational splines provide an exact representation for quadric curves (conics) such as circles and ellipses.
Non-rational splines which are polynomials can only approximate conics. It allows graphics packages
to model all curve shapes with one representation rational splines without needing a library of curve
functions to handle different design shapes.
2. Rational splines are invariant with respect to a perspective viewing transformation. It means, we can
apply a perspective viewing transformation to control points of the rational curve and we will obtain the
correct view of the curve. Non-rational splines, on the other hand, are not invariant with respect to a
perspective viewing tansfomation.
TO Plot conic sections with NURBS, quadratic spline function (k = 3) and three control used. It is done
with a B-spline function defined with the open knot vector.
IS the same as a quadratic Bezier spline. Then, the weighting functions are set to the Ing values.
WoZW2= l and
I—r'
2.40 Computer Aided Design and
Manufactåring
(2.33)
We then obtain the various conics shown in Figure 2.16 with the following values for
weighting factor r,
r > 1/2, WI > I (Hyperbola section)
WI = 1 (Parabola section)
WI < 1 (Ellipse section)
WI = 0 (Straight-line segment)
=1)
Bezier
Given data:
PO [4 4 4] 8
61
= [10 3 4]
、、20 いⅲ盟い、ⅲれゞいⅲい d
いハ(のお、0 い れ)、い
い山いいⅵいい,y
いⅲ ⅲ い川いい、、、い ⅲ、、
い 0 い可、い朝
物←)いヾドいい朝いトヾ W ⅲ いい
0
山 0 ドいい、い 0 ぐ中はいいいい
い
いロ 、
い
へいドら、“、いーいロ、いれ
ド(2 い)、
へ レ ハ、
い の
の+盟'沖い のト盟'覗
( 2、34 )
SUI\Stitutingo ロおい一 0 いい d お、)ー 10 ⅲ 自ドい、3・l)、
のヨい"い い 1281080
0
4 い一朝いにい
いドー則,・い,ⅲ ロ盟ド
S 山 0 ロ、、0 にドれい旧第 3 ⅲ い 35 ).
ト、ト(いのⅱドい
物町い朝う、ロ 0
10
10 12 14 16 18 20
u(x)
AU
Problem 2.2
A cubic Bezier curve is defined by coordinates,Po = [2 2 OJT, PI = [2 3 OJT, P2 [33 o]T
d P3 = [3 2 OJT. Find the equation offhe resulting Bezier curve. Also find
on
P2 (2.5,2.75)
1.8 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.2
u(x)
without a physical model and surface modeling using a computer eases this process
considerably. The basis of a surface is the definition of a curve in two dimensions in a
given plane. It can then be swept along another curve defined in another plane.
Modoling 2.45
surface modeling defines cotilponent With gteater tnathetnntical integrity as it Inodels surfaces to
givc more definitive spatial boundarics to the design. It is particularly useftll niodcling objects which can
be ntodeled as shells such as car body panels, aitvraft or fan blades. The surface takcs the Inodeling of
object one step bcyond wire frame model by providing infonnation on surfaces connecting the
object edges. surface modeling can be used for calculating Inass propcrties, interfet•ence between parts,
gcn«ating cross-sectioned views, genetllting tinite eletncnt Illesh and generating NC tool for continuous
Surface crcation on a CAD systetll usually requires wire entities such as lines, cun•cs, points, ctc. All
analytical and synthctic cutves can be used to generate surfaces. ln ordcr to visualize surfaces on a graphic
display, {1 tnesh, say m x n in size is usually displaycd. Thc mesh size is controlled by the user. Most CAD
systetns provide options to set the mcsh size.
A simple and basic form of surface is flat surJàce. The tnost general and complex surface
representations are generally known as scillptured Silt•face,
Sculptured surface means the surface produced by conibining two families of curves intersect
onc another in a criss-cross Illanner and cteating network of inter connected Patches.
(c) Surface of
2.46 Computer Aided Design and
revolution
Manufacturing
Boundary curve
Boundary curve Figure 2.21 Ruled
(lofted) surface
(c)Surface ofrevolution:
A surface of revolution can be generated by revolving a generating curve about a =line or
vector. This surface is particularly useful when modeling turned parts or parts eh possess the
axial symmetry.
Curve
line
IS a surface generated by translating a planar curve for a given distance along a direction.
The plane of the curve 'is perpendicular to the axis of the generated shown in Figure 2.23.
surface modeling can be used generally to model exterior shell objects such as sheet and thin
structures.
l. Unambiguities in the interpretation of object are less than wire frame models by using the
provision of hidden line removal.
2. Surface modeling can be used to pcrform interference checking (i.e. penetration of one part
with other).
Surface modeling can be used to check the aesthetic look of the product (By using
4• As the surface models precisely define the part geometry such as surface and
Complex surface features such as shoes, car panels, doors etc can be created very easily.
%antages:
5. Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis for stress
strain prediction.
6. Neither hidden lines can be easily removed nor can internal sections be easily
displayed.
where X, Y and Z are suitable functions of two parameters u and v. For example,
the parametric representation of the surface of a sphere whose centre is. at the origin
Of coordinates and of radius R is
mcModeling
(iv) evaluate derivatives easily (v) prevent excessive oscillations that may be observed in
highcr degree polynomial segments, and
(vi) make the representation frec from singularitics such as vcrtical slopcs.
Also, the parametric representation makcs casicr to compute the interscction points or phtcurves
easier which is not casy with implicit representations.
Once we have decidcd to use parametric polynomial curves, wc must choosc thc dcgrcc ofthe cune.
If wc choose a high degree, wc will havc many parameters which wc can sct to frmthe desired shape
but the evaluation of points on the curve will be costly. In addition, as of a polynomial curvc
bccomes higher, therc is more dangcr that thc curve will become rougher. On the other hand, if we
pick too low a dcgrcc, wc may not have cnough peters with which to work. However, if we design
each curve segment over a short itaval, we can achieve many of our purposes with low-degree curves.
Although thcrc may a few degrees of freedom, these few may be sufficient to allow us to produce the
Hedshape in a small region. For this reason, most designers work with cubic polynomial
u. SURFACE PATCH
Manufacturing
where P is the position vector of a point on the surface. The natural form of the
_function f(x, y) for a surface to pass through all the given data points is a polynomial
given by
v) at certain u and v values is the point on the surface at these values. Values of u
and v determine the position of a point on the surface and thus, u and v may be
regarded as the curvilinear or Gaussian coordinates.
data points.
Figure 2.30 Surface patch
(t) Rational method (c) Blending method tensor product method is the most popular and widely
used in surface modeling of its simple separable nature involving only polynomials. There are
no new complications due to the higher dimensionality of a surface over a curve.
the properties of tensor product surface can easily be deduced from properties of —ng curve
schemes.
(i) rational method develops rational surfaces which is an extension of rational
SURFACE
Afinrinterpolation between four bounded curves is used to generate a Coons surface Eisalso called
Coons patch. This type of surface is based on the pioneering work of EzÅnson Coons. The Coons
formulations interpolate to an infinite number of control @points to generate the surface and hence, it
may be referred as a form of transfinite
*ion. The generalized Coons surface (shown in Figure 2.31) is defined by four —at surface patches.
By changing the shape of constituents, the shape of the resulting
change as well even if
the boundary
Consider a surface patch enclosed by four curves shown in Figure 2.31. Let u and
v be two parametcrs used to express this surface patch. It is assumed that u and v
tange from 0 to I along these boundaries and each pair of opposite boundary curves
arc identically parameterized. Let P(O,O), and P(l,l) be the position
vectors at the four comers, and they denote the four boundary cunes by P(u,0), P(u,
l), ,v) and
The result corresponds to the original data. It is because of the fact that the corner
points are counted twice as P(O,O) is contained in both P(u,O) and P(O, v) boundary curves•
The correct result is obtained by subtracting the excess contribution to the surface due to
duplication ofthc corner points. It yields the following equation,
The main drawback of this formulation is that it only provides co continuity bctwccn djcent
patches and not Cl continuity cvcn when the boundary curvcs providc thc Cl mtinuity. In order to
provide the Cl continuity, the linear functions (l — u) and u are replaced by the following cubic
Hermitc polynomials Fl(x) and F2(x) equations respectively
Fl(u) = I
2t1 +3112
would be very difficult to producc a smooth automobile fender using the Coons
surface.
Several CAD softwares including AutoCAD use this surface for generating surfaces
between 4-bounded cdges.
bicubic patch or surface is generated by four boundary curves which are bicubic
polynomials. Bicubic parametric patches are defined over a rectangular
2.58 Computer Aided
domain in uv-space and the boundary curves of the patch are themselves cubic
polynomial curves. Hence, we call it as bicubic. The bicubic surfacc can be
It thought of as 4 curves along u parameter (or alternately as 4 curves along the v
parameter). To compute the location of the surface for some (u, v) pairs, each of
the 4 u-curves can be first solved for the specified value of u. Those 4 points now
make up a new curve which can be evaluated at v, Alternately, if we first solve
the 4 v-curves and to create a new curve which we then evaluate at u, we will
get the exact same answer.
Figure 2.32 Bicubic Surface patch
Analogous to a cubic curve, a parametric cubic surface can be defined by 16
points.
4 points for coordinates of the corner points
8 points for slopes in the u and v directions
•z 4 points for twist vectors (second derivatives)
Figure 2.33 Effect of lifting one ofthe control point ofbicubic surface
patch
tic 2.59
BICUBIC SURFACE
u ti u I |
'*here 0 S u, v S t
(2.44)
v I and
2.64 Computer Aided
k
i
(0.5, 0.5) = 4.5313 2.5313 6.9375
3.3438 5.5313 5.4375
While the surface passes through the four corner points, the control points are controlled
all other points on the surface. Using the placement of these points to specify, edge slope is
easier than determining the parametric slopes and twist vectors for the parametric cubic curve
surface. Bezier surface, as a result, is easicr to use because the control points themselves
approximate the location of the desired surface. Bezier surfaces can be generated with any
order of the Bezier curve. Two surface patches can be joined and the two surfaces do not
have to be of the samc order, one can be cubic and the other a quadratic.
, osvs l
(2.48)
where P(u, v) is any point on the surface and Pij are the control points. and are the
Bemstein blending functions in u And v directions.
Similar to Hermite surface formulation, the above equation (2.48) of Bezier surface can
be written in matrix form as
u u I and
ptftnc
curvc is defined by n + I control points and it passes through the two extreme it employs the
interior points to determine its shape. Similarly, a Bezier surface .s defined by a rectangular grid Of
(n + l) x (m + l) control points. It is attached at the comer points and it employs the other grid points
to determine its shape. (n + l) x (m + ogidOfcontrol points can be arranged in a roughly rectangular
grid as
POI 0m 1m
nm
ftbic Bezier surfaces are very useful in computer graphics for software development. recubic
Bezier surfaces can be obtained by substituting n = 3 and m = 3 into the equation
P12
. . . (2.51)
2.66 Computer Aided
or
P(u,v) = (2.52)
where U
Hence, v = 3v(l-v)2
Figure 2.36 shows two Bezier surface plots. The control points are connected by
dashed lines and the solid lines show curves of constant u and constant v. Each curve
of constant u is plotted by varying v over the interval from O to 1 with u fixed at one
of the values in this unit interval. Curves of constant v are similarly plotted. Bezier
surfaces constructed for (a) "11 - 3, n = 3 and (b) m = 4, n = 4. Dashed lines connect
the control points.
2.68 Computer
In Bezier surface,
(i) The surface takes the general shape of the control points.
(ii) The surface is contained within the convex hull of the control points.
(iii) The corner of the surface and the corner control points are coincident.
With Bezier curves, the culve will interpolate (pass through) the first and last control points but it
will only approximate other control points.
(iii) With Bezier surfaces, 4 corners will interpolate and other 12 points in the control mesh are
only approximated.
(iv) Four boundaries of the Bezier surface are just Bezier curves dcfined by points on edges of the
surface.
(v) By matching these points, two Bezier surfaces can be precisely connected.
(vi) The continuity of surface in each parametric direction is 2 less than the num ber of vertices of the
control net in the saine direction.
(vii) The surfacc generally follows the shape of the control net.
(viii) The surface passes through only the four comer points of the control net.
(ix) The tangent plane to the surface at a corner point is spanned by two sides Ofthe control net
joining the same corner point.
(x) The direction and magnitude of the twist vectors at four corners Poo, PO,'" Pnon and Pm,o of
the control net are influcnced by their neighbouring points,
(xi) The surface is invariant under affine transformations which that the transformed ilnage ofthc
surface patch is also a Bezier surface paßfh•
Vic
2.69
since they are much more compact, easier to manipulate and they have much better continuity
properties.
(ii) In addition, other common parametric surfaces such as spheres and cylinders can be well
approximated by relatively small numbers of cubic Bezier patches.
(iii) It makes use of awkward for pure ray tracing or other direct geometric techniques which do not
use subdivision or successive approximation techniques. They are also difficult to combine
directly with perspective projection algorithms.
basis function for a cubic B-spline surface is similar to a cubic B-spline curve. It has a net Of control
points which define the surface, none of which interpolate the patch, as in the case Of the B-spline curve.
Similar to an advantage of B-spline surface, it supports local control Of the surface. Composite surfaces can
be obtained by combining several surface patches.
uniform B-spline surface patch is constructed as a Cartesian product of two uniform B•spline curves. A
rectangular set of control points creates the B-Spline surface, This set
the vertices of the characteristics polyhedron which approximates and controls the shape Of thelusulting B-
spline surface. The degree of
2.70 Computer Aided Design and the surface is independent of
the Manufacturing
number of control points. The continuity is automatically maintained throughout the surface by virtue of the
form of blending functions.
A B-spline surface defined by an (n + I) x (m + l) array of control points is defined as
n
max
. (2.53)
where P(u, v) is any point on the surface and Pij are the control points. and are the B-spline
basis functions of degree k and l, respectively, defined with respect to the knot vectors in both u
and v directions. These knot vectors are constant but not necessarily equal. It has a knot vector of
h + 1 knots in the u-direction, U = { 110, 111, ...., uh } and a knot vector of k + I knots in the v-
direction, V = { vo, VI, ...., Vk }. It is noted that the fundamental identities, one for each direction,
must hold: h = n +j + I and k = + I + 1. Therefore, a B. spline surface is another example of tensor
product surfaces. As in Bezier surfaces, the set of control points is usually referred as the control
net and the range of u and v is 0 and l. Hence, a B-spline surface maps the unit square to a
rectangular surface patch.
Similar to Bezier surface formulation, the above equation (2.53) of B-spline surface can be
written in matrix form given by
Vm—l
2.71
infonttation contained in solid allows the automatic production of rcaligtic of a shape and automation 0t the
process of intcrfcrcncc checking, In many lic3tions, it is important to distinguish bctwccn inside, outside and
surfacc of a 3D objcct. classification is called spatial addressability or set Inenibers/lip classification. fris
Same geometry
-Different topology
Figure 2.38
A valid solid model should not have sagging edges or faces. So, it will allow the analysis, mass property
calculations, finite element modeling and analysis, mehine vision and NC palt progralnming. Solid model can be
quickly created without to define the individual location as in case of wireframe ruodels. In many cases, solid models
are easier than wireframe or surface models,
Solid models should contain two types of infonnation such as ntetric or geometric data or topological data. The
geometric data relate to the coordinate positions of Of the object or actual dimensions that define entities of the
object. The ogical data refers to the connectivity und associatively of the object entities. For solid both information
are necessary as different shapes can result the satne geometry with
different topolou and different geometry with same topolog. Figure 2.38 illustrate the difference
between these two.
(a) Block:
tric
Block Sphere
Cone Wedge Torus
Figure 2.39 Basic solidprimitives
p) Cylinder:
It is a right circular cylinder whosc geometry is defined by its radius or diameter and length.
(c) Cone:
It is a right circular cone or frustum of a right circular cone whose geometry is defined by its base radius,
top radius and height.
(d) Sphere:
(e) Wedge:
It is a right angled wedge whose geometry is defined by its height, width and base
depth.
(D Torus:
It is generated by the revolution of a circle about an axis lying in its plane. The geometry can be defined by
In Primitive based modeling, designers use the predefined primitives described above to create complex solids.
Designers must use Boolean operations to cornbine the primitives and Produce the required shape. A right combination
of primitives is selected and their specific Instances are used as bricks or elcmcnts to build the solid. The available
Boolean operations union Or combination (u or +), intersection (n or l) and difference or subtraction
The union operator is used to combine or add two prilüitives. The intersection operator gives a shape cqual to
their common volume. The diffi2rencc opcmtor is used to subtmct one
object from the other object and it results a shape cqual to the difference in their volume. An
example for this activity is shown in Figure 2.40. This approach is limited by the restricted shapes of
the primitives.
A-B An B
Resulting solids
For example, creating a protrusion on the facc of a cube is a Boolean union and creating a cut in
the cube is a Boolean subtraction. These operations arc must for the creation Of final solid.
Modeling
115.4.
Representationof
AnB
Boolean operations
A part lying in the three-dimensional space can be defined as a combination of the *r,boundary and
exterior or surface of the object. This understanding helps not only in ig the part but also in locating its
topology. The interior and exterior of the object are separated by boundary.
A solid model of the object can bc mathematically defined as a set of points S in threeensional Euclidean
space (M). This solid is having boundary equal to bS, interior equal to
exterior equal to the complement of S and written as cS. As the iS excludes the
points
bS kS
Figure 2.42
universal set of points is a verification thåt W = S u cS= iS u bS u cS. Figure 2.42 the geometric
explanation of thesc equations.
(a) Rigidity:
It refers to the shape of the solid model as invariant. Solid model does not depend on the
location in space.
> It is a closed regular set. They should not be any dangling portions.
> It is a semi-analytic set. It does not oscillate infinitely fast anywhere in the set
Based on the ability to represent an object as perfectly as possible, the schemes are
classified as follows.
only one object. It is the most desirable though it is not always achievable.
tic 2.77
The representation schemes have been accorded with the following formal p*flies. These properties
Information
propertie
s
Having these properties in mind, various representation schemes have been developed to create solid
models. The prominent among them are the following.
Half-spaces
Sweeping
Modeling
Analytic solid modeling
Cell decomposition
Spatial enumeration
Primitive modeling
Out Of which, the
2.78 Computer Aldod Doslgn and following two basic
approaches arc impoflant
from our subject point
Manufacturing
5. Aesthetic look of finished object can be visualized in the computer screen itselfwith colour
shading, high-lighting and facilities available in solid modelers.
6. Different views of object (Isometric, Perspective and Orthographic view) can be obtained
easily.
7. Solid model is very much useful for finite element analysis.
8. They can help to produce NC machining instructions automatically.
The balanced distribution of the tree is desired to achieve minimum computations while
modifying or interrogating a model. A balanced tree can be defined as a tree whose left and right
subtrees have almost an equal nuunber of nodes. The creation of balanced or an
unbalances trec is entirely dependent on the user and it is related to how the priiüitives
Modeling
2.80 Compute r Aided Design and Manufacturlng
(d) (e)
Figure 2.46
For example, to create a model as shown in Figure 2.45, four primitives ¯ two rectangular blocks
and two cylinders are required. To create the final object following
2.81
tion has to be carried out. The CSG tree is organized upside down with the root composite object at the
top and primitives called leaves at the bottom.
Balanced tree
does not provide a unique representation. It can be particularly confusing in a lets the user manipulate the
leaf objects with tweaking operators. Applying the to t',vo objects which are initially the same can yield two
different results Figure 2.46. The object shmnl in (a) may be defined by different CSG operations and (c). The
of the top face of (b) and (c) upward yields different in (d) and (e). Nevertheless, the ability to edit
models by deleting, adding, and modifying is coupled with the relatively compact form in which a-e stored and they
have made CSG as one of the dominant solid modeling gsentations.
l. Since, the data to be stored are less and the memory required will be less.
computational effort and time are required whenever the model is to be in the screen.
4' The validity of a feature of an object cannot be assessed without evaluating the
Sketch the CSG tree for each of the two solids shown below. The solid S2 is divided
symmetrically and it consists offour blocks (Bl to B) and six cylinder (Cl to CO. The dashed line
shown inside S2 in the Figure 2.47(b) is not pan ofS2. It is a hypotheitical line that uses to divide
the top part ofS2 into two blocks Bl and [May'181
Not part of S2
(a) Solid
(b) Solid
Figure 2.47
O Solution:
Figure 2.49
b, c, d, c andJ) and how these cdges are connected together to form the face BCD, 'ACD,
ABD) which makes the complete solid of tetrahedron. This connectivity to the soliåis popularly known
as topology.
2.84 Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing
Solid (ABCD)Tetrahedro
n
f Edges
c
(a)
TetrahedronVertices
Bottom view
Top view
B-rep scheme can model a variety of solids depending on the primitive surfaces
(planar curved, or sculptured). There are fivo types of solid models in this scheme.
where
F = Number of faces
E = Number of edges
V = Number of vertices
L = Face's inner loop
B = Bodies
G = Genus (handles or through holes)
The following examples describe how this equation is applied for some simple
polyhedral objects.
Example 2:
A tetrahedron shown in Figure 2.52(b) has F = 4, E = 6 and V = 4. Applying
Euler's rule for this tetrahedron
+4 = 2. :.Euler rule satisfied.
Example 3: shown in Figure 2.52(c) has F = 8, E = 18 and V = 12. Applying Euler's rule for
A solid
this solid
8— 18 + 12 = 2. :.Euler rule satisfied.
Modeling 2.87
Figure 2.52
Open solids that are not homomorphic to a sphere (shown in Figure 2.53) satisfr the
F-E+ V-L=B-G
In this equation, B refers to an open body such as wire, an area or a volume.
Fotsimple solids without holes, it should satisfy the following Euler's rule
F-E+V-2
Manufacturing For bodies with holes and re-entrant face, it should satisfy Euler-Poincare
formula
F-E+ V-H+2P=2B
where H = Number of holes or interior edge loops
P = Number of passages or through holes
B = Number of separate bodies
Even if the topological consistency is achieved, in some cases similar to solids having
concave faces will not give geometrically valid solid.
(a) (b)
As stated earlier, a valid B-rep solid must satisfy the Euler-Poincare formula.
For this purpose, various elements or primitives of the B-rep model are defined as
follows:
(a) Vertices:
It is a point in three-dimensional Euclidian space.
(b) Edge:
It is a finite, non-intersecting space curve bounded by two vertices that are not
necessarily distinct.
Modeling 2.89
(c) Face:
It is a finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of a closed oriented surface and
bounded by one or more loops.
non-sclf-
• g closed spacecurve which may be a boundaryof a
face.
/ Bdy:
entity that has faces, edges and vertices. Minimum body is a point.
0 Boundary hole:
g) Interior 1801c:
Itis hole which is lying inside and having no boundary on surface of the solid.
(t) Genus:
It is the topological name for the number of through holes or handles in an object. A tough hole
may be termed as a three-dimensional hole. Some of the elements are shown in figur2.55.
2.90 Com
reasons.
Edge
puter Aided Design and Manufacturing
4. Combining the wire frame and surface model is possible only through B-
rep solid reprcsentation.
Advantages:
l . Computational effort and time required to display the model are less compared
with CSG.
2. Combining wire frame and surface model are possible.
Disadvantages:
J The data to be stored is more and hence, it requires more memory. so, it
is not suitable for tool-path generation.
2,91
6. Thc data
conversion of CSGof
structure toB-rep
B-rep is possible.
complexAt the samcto
coinpared time,
CSG.the convcrsion for
features.