Chapter 6

Fluid flow in porous media

 introduction
• MBAL predicts production as a function of
pressure
• Reservoir engineers like to know production as
a function of time
• Equations which relate: Flow rate – time –
pressure
 Chapter 6: Learning outcomes
Fluid flow in porous media Students should be able to:
•Darcy’s flow equation • Explain Darcy’s flow equation. (CH chp7)
•Type of fluids and reservoir flow • Describe the flow systems in reservoir.
system • Demonstrate flow equation for zone with
•Effect of different permeabilities different permeabilities.
•Flow through fracture (linear) • Demonstrate flow equation through fracture
•Radial flow for fluids (linear flow).
• equal and different • Demonstrate and apply radial flow equations
permeabilities for liquid and gas under different
• steady state and unsteady permeability system, steady and unsteady
state flow for compressible state condition.
liquid and incompressible • Apply fluid flow equation in superposition
fluids theory.
• superposition and image • Calculate average pressure.
(theory of superposition) • Calculate well performance based on PI
• average pressure (productivity index), PR (productivity ratio),
•PI, PR, damaged zone and well damage zone and stimulated well.
stimulation
 Darcy’s Law

k  dp 
v  0.001127  0. 433 ' cos 
  ds 

Where,
dp
is the pressure gradient
ds
and
0.433 ' cos  is the hydraulic (gravitational)
gradient
 Darcy’s Experiments
• Discharge is
hL
Proportional to P1/g

– Area
L
– Head difference
P2/g
Inversely proportional to v
h1 Q h2
– Length

,A
• Coefficient of z1 Sand

ea
Ar
column
proportionality is Datum z2
plane
K = hydraulic conductivity Q

h1  h2 h2 - h1 Dh
QA Q = -KA Q = -KA
L L L
 Darcy’s flow equation
Darcy’s law states that the velocity of a homogeneous fluid in porous medium is proportional
to the pressure gradient, and inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity,
k dp

 ds
 = apparent velocity cm/s dan is equal to q/A
q = volumetric flow rate cm3/s
A = apparent or total cross-sectional area of the rock ( include the area of the rock
material as well as the pore channels, cm2,
 = fluid viscosity, cp
dp/ds = pressure gradient, atm/cm, taken in the same direction as  and q
k = proportionality constant, k is the permeability of the rock expresed in darcy units

Applicable under following conditions:

Laminar flow
Steady state flow
Incompressible fluids
Homogeneous formation

The unit of permeability is the darcy.

A rock of one darcy permeability is one in which a fluid of one centipoise viscosity will move
at a velocity of one centimeter per second under apressure gradient of one atmosphere per
centimeter.
In general, including effect of gravity

k dp

 ds

S+

 S+


k  dp 
    9.67 *10  cos  
4

  ds 

ρ the fluid density in g/cc

 is the angle measured between the positive s-direction and the vertical taken in the downward
direction
9.67*10-4 converts the pressure gradient from (g/cm2)/cm to atm/cm
 Using field units
q = bbl/day
A = ft2
 = cp
dp/ds = psi/ft,
k = millidarcy (md).
 = apparent velocity in bbl/day/ft2 equal to q/A

q * 42 gal bbl * 3785.43 cc gal k *1000 dp

 
86400 sec day * A * (30.48 cm ft ) 2  ds * 30.48 cm ft *14.696 psi atm

q k dp
  0.001127
A  ds

k  dp 
  1.127 10 3    0.433 ' cos  
  ds 

0.433 ' cos  = hydraulic gradient, psi/ft

' = specific gravity relative to water (water =1.0)

Calculation of datum pressures, pressure gradients, and reservoir flow from static
pressure measurements in wells.
Given:
Well Well
No. 1 No. 2
1320 ft

top perf
Datum 7600 ft 7520 ft
3380 psia
top perf
7720 ft
3400 psia

dip angle
DIP < = 8o 37’

Distance between wells = 1320 ft

True stratum thickness = 20 ft
Dip of stratum between wells = 8o 37’
Reservoir datum level = 7600 ft sub sea
Reservoir fluid specific gravity = 0.693 (water = 1)
Reservoir permeability = 145 md
Reservoir fluid viscosity = 0.32 cp
Well No.1 static pressure = 3400 psia pd. 7720 ft sub sea
Well No.2 static pressure = 3380 psia pd. 7520 ft sub sea
Solution;
Reservoir fluid gradient = 0.693*0.433 = 0.300 psi/ft
P1 at datum 7600 ft = 3400 - 120*0.3 = 3364 psia
P2 at datum 7600 ft = 3380 + 80*0.3 = 3404 psia

The difference of 40 psi indicates that fluid is moving down dip, from well 2
to well 1. The average effective gradient is 40/1335 = 0.03 psi/ft, where1335
psia is the distance along the stratum between wells. The velocity then is

q 145
  0.00127 * 0.03  0.0153 bbl / day / ft 2
A 0.32
= 5.615*0.0153 = 0.086 ft/day

1320
Well Well
cos a =
No. 1 No. 2 L
1320 ft
1320
L= = 1335
cosa
top perf
Datum 7600 ft 7520 ft
3380 psia
top perf
1320
7720 ft
3400 psia α
dip angle
DIP < = 8o 37’
Alternative solution. Take the positive direction from well1 to well 2

k  P2  P1 0.433 (z ) 
 (12)  0.001127   
  ds ds 
k  P2  P1 0.433 ( z 2  ( z1 ) 
 (12)   0.00127   
  ds ds 
145  3380  3400 0.433 * 0.693(7520  (7720) 
 (1 2)  0.001127   
0.32  1335 1335 
= - 0.0153 bbl/day/ft2

Alternative solution. Take the positive direction from well2 to well 1

k  P1  P2 0.433 ( z1  ( z2 ) 
 ( 21)   0.001127   
  ds ds 
145  3400  3380 0.433 * 0.693(7720  (7520) 
 ( 21)  0.001127   
0.32  1335 1335 

= 0.0153 bbl/day/ft2
Alternative method using dip angle. Take positive direction from well 1 to well 2.

 = 98o 37’ dan cos(98o 37’) = - 0.1498.

k  dp 
  0.001127   0.433 cos  
  ds 
145  (3380  3400) 
  0.001127   0.433 * 0.693 * (0.1458) 
0.32  1335 

= - 0.0153 bbl/day/ft2
Well Well
No. 1 No. 2
1320 ft

top perf
Datum 7600 ft 7520 ft
3380 psia
top perf
7720 ft
3400 psia

dip angle
DIP < = 8o 37’
 Prob 7.1 (C&H)
Two wells are located 2500 ft apart. The static well pressure at the top of
perforations (9332 ft subsea) in well A is 4365 psia and at the top of perforations
(9672 ft subsea) in well B is 4372 psia. The reservoir fluid gradient is 0.25 psi/ft,
reservoir permeability is 245 md, and reservoir fluid viscosity is 0.63 cp.

(a)Correct the two static pressures to a datum level of 9100 ft subsea.

(b)In what direction is the fluid flowing between the wells?
(c)What is the average effective pressure gradient between the wells?
(d)What is the fluid velocity?
(e)Is this total velocity or only the component of the velocity in the direction
between the two wells?
(f)Show that the same fluid velocity is obtained using Eq.(7.1)
 Prob 7.1 (C&H)
Well Well
B A
2500 ft
Datum 9100 ft

top perf
9332 ft
4365 psia
top perf
9672 ft
4372 psia

Given:
Reservoir fluid gradient = 0.25 psi/ft
Reservoir permeability = 245 md
Reservoir fluid viscosity = 0.63 cp.
 Type of fluids and reservoir flow system

The main objective of this chapter is to present the mathematical relationships that are designed to
describe the flow behavior of the reservoir fluids. The mathematical forms of these relationships will
vary depending upon the characteristics of the reservoir. The primary reservoir characteristics that
must be considered include:

• Types of fluids in the reservoir

• Flow regimes
• Reservoir geometry
• Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir

Type of fluids Flow regimes Reservoir geometry Number of flowing

fluids
•Incompressible fluids • Steady-state flow • Radial flow • Single-phase flow (oil,
•Slightly compressible • Unsteady-state flow • Linear flow water, or gas)
fluids • Pseudosteady-state • Spherical and • Two-phase flow (oil-
•Compressible fluids flow hemispherical flow water, oil-gas, or gas-
water)
• Three-phase flow (oil,
water, and gas)
 TYPE OF FLUIDS
•Incompressible fluids
•Slightly compressible fluids
•Compressible fluids

Incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid whose volume

(or density) does not change with pressure.

Slightly compressible fluid is the fluid that exhibit small

changes in volume or density with changes in pressure.

Compressible fluid is the fluid that experience large

changes in volume as a function of pressure.

Incompressible fluids

Incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid whose volume (or density does not
change with pressure.

V 
0 0
p p
Slightly compressible fluids V  Vi e c ( pi  p ) V  Vi 1  c( pi  p)

Slightly compressible fluid is the fluid that exhibit small changes in volume or density with
changes in pressure.

1 dV
c
Vi dp

dV
  c dp  
p V

pi Vi V
x2 x3 x4 xn
e  1 x 
x
   .......
V  2! 3! 4! n!
c( pi  p)  ln 
 Vi 

For very small value of x, ex becomes (1+x)

V
e c ( pi  p )  only, and if x = c(pi-p), then
Vi

c ( pi  p )
V  Vi 1  c( pi  p)
V  Vi e
Compressible fluids

Compressible fluid is the fluid that experience large changes in volume as a

functionof pressure.

Gas is a compressible fluid.

znRT
V 1 dV
p c
V dp
z
V  const *
p
1 dV 1 1 dz
dV nRT dz znRT cg    
  V dp p z dp
dp p dp p2

 znRT  1 dz  znRT  1
      *
 p  z dp  p  p

1 dV 1 dz 1
 
V dp z dp p
 TYPE OF FLUIDS

Incompressible fluids Slightly compressible fluids Compressible fluids

V V  Vi e c ( pi  p )
0 1 dV 1 1 dz
p cg    
V dp p z dp
 V  Vi 1  c( pi  p)
0
p

volume (or density) does small changes in volume or large changes in volume as a
not change with density with changes in functionof pressure.
pressure pressure
FLOW REGIMES

• Steady-state flow
• Unsteady-state flow
• Pseudosteady-state flow

Steady-State Flow
the pressure at every location in the reservoir remains constant, i.e., does not
change with time

the rate of change of pressure p with respect to time t at any location i is

zero.

In reservoirs, the steady-state flow condition can only occur when the
reservoir is completely recharged and supported by strong aquifer or
pressure maintenance operations.
Unsteady-State Flow (transient flow)
the fluid flowing condition at which the rate of change of pressure with respect to
time at any position in the reservoir is not zero or constant.

This definition suggests that the pressure derivative with respect to time is
essentially a function of both position i and time t,

Pseudosteady-State Flow
When the pressure at different locations in the reservoir is declining linearly as a
function of time, i.e., at a constant declining rate, the flowing condition is
characterized as the pseudosteady-state flow.

The rate of change of pressure with respect to time at every position is constant, or

The pseudosteady-state flow is commonly referred to as semisteady-state flow and

quasisteady-state flow.
 FLOW REGIMES

Steady-State Flow Unsteady-State Flow Pseudosteady-State Flow

(transient flow) (semisteady-state,
quasisteady-state flow)

the pressure does not change the rate of change of the pressure at different
with time pressure with respect to time locations in the reservoir is
at any position in the declining linearly as a
reservoir is not zero or function of time, i.e., at a
constant constant declining rate
RESERVOIR (FLOW) GEOMETRY
• Radial flow
• Linear flow
• Spherical and hemispherical flow

Radial Flow
- Flow into or away from a wellbore will follow radial flow lines from a substantial
distance from the wellbore.
- fluids move toward the well from all directions and coverage at the wellbore,
the term radial flow is given to characterize the flow of fluid into the wellbore.

Reservoir geometry

• Radial flow
• Linear flow
• Spherical and
hemispherical flow
Linear Flow
- flow paths are parallel and the fluid flows in a single direction
-the cross-sectional area to flow must be constant.

Example, the fluid flow into vertical hydraulic fractures.

Spherical and Hemispherical Flow
Depending upon the type of wellbore
completion configuration

A well with a limited perforated interval

could result in spherical flow in the vicinity
of the perforations.

A well that only partially penetrates the

pay zone could result in hemispherical
flow. The condition could arise where
coning of bottom water is important.
NUMBER OF FLOWING FLUIDS IN THE RESERVOIR

The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the volumetric performance
and pressure behavior of the reservoir vary in forms and complexity depending upon
the number of mobile fluids in the reservoir. There are generally three cases of
flowing systems:

• Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)

• Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
• Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)
 Fluid Flow Equations
Darcy’s Steady –state flow Unsteady-State Flow Pseudosteady Principle of Transient PI, PR, damaged
Law state Superposition well zone and well
testing stimulation
Linear Incompressible constant- -The Ei-function - Radial Flow Effects of Pressure
flow fluids terminal- solution of Slightly multiple wells drawdown
rate - The Compressible
solution dimensionless Fluids
pressure pD - Radial Flow
solution of
Compressible
Fluids (Gases)
- Skin Factor
Slightly Effects of rate Pressure
compressible change buildup
fluid
Compressible Effects of the
fluid boundary

Permeability Effects of
varitions pressure
change

Radial Incompressible
flow fluids

Slightly
compressible
fluid
Compressible
fluid
Permeability
variations
 Diffusivity equation
The pressure moves away from a well at a rate proportional to the formation
diffusivity, η
k

ct
Where ct is the total compressibility

ct  cg S g  co So  cw S w  c f
Pseudosteady-state period

The period after the pressure

behavior has stabilized in the
reservoir

Pressure at every point is

changing at a constant rate and
as a linear function of time.

Time to reach pseudosteady-

state can be estimated by the
following equation,

1200re2 1200ct re2

t pss  
 k
 Steady-state flow systems
Fluid Flow Equations
p dp
Linear flow of incompressible fluids P1 P2

q k dp
  0.001127
 ds
q
A A

0 dx L
q L k p2
A 0
dx  0.001127
 p1
dp x

kA  p 2  p1 
q  0.001127
 L
 Example 6.1 (Tarek Ahmed)
An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous media with the following
properties;

L = 2000 ft h = 20ft width = 300 ft

k = 100 md  = 15% μ = 2 cp

Calculate;
a.Flow rate in bbl/day
b.Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day
c.Actual fluid velocity in ft/day
Solution

(a) A  h  width  20  300  6000 ft 2

0.001127 100  6000  (2000  1990)
q  1.6905bbl / day
2  2000
(b) Apparent velocity (c) Actual velocity
q 1.6905  5.615 q 1.6905  5.615
v   0.0016 ft / day v   0.0105 ft / day
A 6000 A (0.15)(6000)
Fluid Flow Equations
Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids
V  Vi 1  c( pi  p)
q k dp
  0.001127
A  ds p dp
P1 P2

q
A

0 dx L
x

upstream pressure p1 as the the downstream pressure p2 as the

reference pressure pref reference pressure
 Example 6.3 (Tarek Ahmed)
Consider the linear system given in Example 6.1 and , assuming a slightly
compressible liquid, calculate the flow rate at both ends of the linear
system. The liquid has an average compressibility of 21 x 10-5 psi-1.

L = 2000 ft h = 20ft width = 300 ft

k = 100 md  = 15% μ = 2 cp

Solution

Choosing the upstream pressure as the reference pressure;

 0.001127 100  6000 

q 5  ln 1 
 ( 21  10 5

)( 2000  1990)  1.689bbl / day
 2  2000(2110 ) 

Choosing the downstream pressure as the reference pressure;

 0.001127 100  6000   1 

q 5  ln  5   1.692bbl / day
 2  2000(2110 )  1  (2110 )(1990  2000) 
 Fluid Flow Equations
Linear flow of compressible fluids
q k dp
  0.001127
A  ds
q sc p scTz
q bbls gas per day (gas at reservoir conditions ) p dp
5.615 Tsc p P1 P2

q sc p scTz 1 k dp q
*  0.001127 A
5.615 Tsc p A  dx

0 dx L
q sc p scTz 1 L k p2
*  dx  0.001127  pdp x

5.615 Tsc A 0  p1

q = gas flow rate at pressure p in bbl/day

 
q sc p scTz 1 k 1 2 qsc = gas flow rate at standard conditions,
* L  0.001127 p 2  p12 scf/day
5.615 Tsc A 2 z = gas compressibility factor
Tsc, psc = standard temperature and pressure in

 
°R and psia, respectively
Tsc Ak p12  p 22
q sc  0.003164 SCF/day
p scTzL
 Setting psc =14.7 psi and Tsc = 520°R

gas properties z and μg are a very strong

function of pressure
The above equation is valid for
applications when the pressure < 2,000
psi.

The gas properties must be evaluated at the

average pressure p
 Example 6.4 (Tarek Ahmed)
A linear porous media is flowing a 0.72 specific gravity gas at 120oF. The upstream
and downstream pressures are 2100 psi and 1894.73 psi, respectively. The cross-
sectional area is constant at 4500 ft2. The total length is 2500 feet with an absolute
permeability of 60 md. Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day
(Psc = 14.7 psia, Tsc = 520oR).

Average pressure: 21002  1894.732

p  2000 psi
2
 Example 6.4 (solution)
With gas gravity = 0.72,

Tpc = 396oR

Ppc = 668 psia

P 2000
Ppr    2.99
Ppc 668
T 120  460
Tpr    1.46
Tpc 396
Example 6.4 (solution)

P 2000
Ppr    2.99
Ppc 668
T 120  460
Tpr    1.46
Tpc 396

From graph, Z = 0.75

 Gas viscosity
Viscosity = 0.0108 at 1 atm
Correction factor = 1.57

Viscosity = 0.0108 x 1.57

= 0.017 cp
 Example 6.4 (solution)

0.111924 Ak ( p12  p22 ) (0.111924)( 4500)(60)( 2100 2  1894.732 )

Qsc    1.30 106 SCF / day
TLz g (600)(0.75)( 2500)(0.017)
If flow rate was measured at average pressure , pm, and reservoir temperature, then

qsc  qm
 p1  p2  Tsc 1 p  p2 
pm 
1
2 PscT z 2

q sc 

0.003614Tsc 1 Ak p12  p 22 
p scT z L


 
0.003614Tsc 1 Ak p1  p 2 p1  p 2 
p scT z L

 p1  p2  Tsc 1 0.003164Tsc Ak  p1  p2  p1  p2 
qm  qsc 
2 pscT z pscTzL

0.006328 Ak  p1  p 2 
qm  cu.ft/day
L
Permeability variations P1 P2 P3 P4

Layers in series
qt
A
Total pressure drop

p  p4    p1  p2    p2  p3    p3  p4 
L1 L2 L3

qt Lt  q L q L q L
 1 1  2 2  3 3
1127
. kavg A 1127
. k1 A1 1127
. k2 A2 1127
. k3 A3

qt = q1 = q2 =q3
A = A1 = A2 =A3

Lt L1 L2 L3
  
k avg k1 k 2 k 3

k avg 
Lt

L i
L1 L2 L3 L
 
k1 k 2 k 3
k i

i
 Permeability variations
p2
Layers in parallel
p1

k1
q1 A1
Total flow rate
q2 A2
k2

qt = q 1 + q 2 + q 3
q3 A3
k3

kavg At  p1  p2 
L

k1 A1  p1  p2  k2 A2  p1  p2  k3 A3  p1  p2 
  
L L L L

kavg At  k1 A1  k2 A2  k3 A3

k avg At   k i A i

k avg 
 kA
i i

At
 Fluid Flow Equations

Steady –state flow

Linear flow Incompressible kA  p 2  p1 

fluids q  0.001127
 L
Slightly
compressible
fluid
Compressible
fluid
(below 2000
psia)
Compressible
fluid qm 
0.006328 Ak  p1  p 2  p  p2 
pm 
1
cu.ft/day
(above 2000 L 2
psia)

Permeability Layer in series Layer in parallel

variations
k avg 
Lt

L i
k avg 
 kA i i
L1 L2 L3 L
 
k1 k 2 k 3
k i At
i
Fluid Flow Equations

Radial flow of incompressible fluids

In a radial flow system, all fluids move toward the
producing well from all directions.

The pressure in the formation at the wellbore of

a producing well is known as the bottom-hole
flowing pressure (flowing BHP, pwf).

the flow rate at any radius r

q q k dp
   0.001127
A 2rh  dr
r2 q p2 k
r1 2rh
dr    0.001127 dp
P1 

0.00708kh  p 2  p1 
q
 r 
ln  2 
 r1 
 0.00708kh  p 2  p1 
q
 r 
ln  2 
 r1 

Positive direction of q is in opposite direction of r, therefore

0.007.8kh  p 2  p1 
q
 r 
ln  2 
 r1 

q res  q sc Bo

0.00708kh  p 2  p1 
q sc 
Bo r  pe = external pressure, psi
ln  2 
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
 r1 
k = permeability, md

0.00708kh  p e  p wf  μo = oil viscosity, cp

Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
q sc  STB/day
Bo r  h = thickness, ft
ln  e  re = external or drainage radius, ft
 rw  rw = wellbore radius, ft
Fluid Flow Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids

V  Vi 1  c( pi  p)

co = isothermal compressibility
coefficient, psi−1
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
k = permeability, md
 Example 6.6 (Tarek Ahmed)
The following data are available on a well in the Red River Field:

Pe = 2506 psi Pwf = 1800 psi

re = 745 ft rw = 0.25 ft
Bo = 1.25 μo = 2.5 cp co = 25 x 10-6 psi-1
K = 0.12 Darcy h = 25 ft

Assuming a slightly compressible fluid, calculate the oil flow rate.

Compare the result with that of incompressible fluid.

For slightly compressible fluid;

   
   
Qsc  

0.00708kh 
 re  
 
ln 1  co ( Pe  Pwf )  
(0.00708)(120)( 25)

 ln 1  (25 10 6 )( 2506  1800) 
 (2.5)(1.25)( 25 10 6 ) ln  745  

 o o o  
B c ln     
  w  
r  0.25 
 595STB / day
For incompressible fluid;
0.00708kh( Pe  Pwf ) (0.00708)(120)( 25)( 2506  1800)
Qsc    600STB / day
o Bo ln( re / rw ) (2.5)(1.25) ln( 745 / 0.25)
Radial flow, compressible fluids in steady state
 Fluid Flow Equations

Steady –state flow

0.00708kh  p e  p wf 
Radial flow Incompressible
fluids
q sc  STB/day
Bo r 
ln  e 
 rw 
Slightly
compressible
fluid

Compressible
fluid p  p2 
pm 
1
(P<2000 psia)
2

Compressible
fluid p  p2 
pm 
1
(P>2000 psia)
2

Permeability Layer in series Layer in parallel

variations
Development of the radial differential
equation
 Development of the radial differential
equation

2rh()t  t  ()t 
2 (r  r )h( v(5.615 / 24)) r  r  2rh( v(5.615 / 24)) r 
t
If both sides of the equation are divided by 2r (r )h and the limit is taken in
each term as Δr and Δt approach zero, the following is obtained:

 1 
(0.234 v)  (0.234 v)  ()
r r t
0.234  
(rv)  ()
r r t
The above equation is the continuity equation and is valid for any flow system of
radial geometry.
Development of the radial differential
equation
k p
Since v  0.001127
 r

0.234   p  
 0.001127 r    
k
r r   r  t


       
t t t

 p
 c f
t t

0.234   k p  p 
 0.001127 r   c f 
r r   r  t t

The general PDE to describe the flow of any fluid flowing in radial
direction in porous media
Fluid flow in Porous Media

TRANSIENT FLOW SYSTEMS

 Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids,
transient flow
V  VR ec ( pR  p )
   R ec ( p R  p)

0.234  
r r 
k
 
p 
 
 0.001127  R ec (    R ) r    R ec (    R ) c f
 r 
p
t


t

 R ec (    R ) 

Assuming k and μ are constant over pressure, time and distance, the
above equation can be simplified as

 2 p 1 p  p   p ct p
2

  c   (c f  c ) 
r 2
r r  r  0.0002637k t 0.0002637k t

Negligible for most flow involving liquids

 2 p 1 p ct p
  
r 2 r r 0.0002637k t

The resulted equation is the diffusivity equation in radial form.

Solution to the diffusivity equation for radial
flow
 2 p 1 p ct p
  
r 2 r r 0.0002637k t

Need to specify one initial condition, and two boundary conditions.

initial condition:
p = pi at t = 0

boundary conditions;

i.Flow rate is constant at the wellbore and is given by Darcy’s equation,

kh  p 
q  0.001127 (2r ) 
B  r  r  rw

ii.For transient period, the reservoir is infinite in size (r = 

) and p = pi
Solution to the diffusivity equation for radial
flow
With those initial and boundary conditions, Matthews and Russel
proposed the following solution:

70.6qB   ct r 2 
p(r , t )  pi   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 

The above equation is called the line source solution to the

diffusivity equation, and is used to predict the reservoir pressure as
a function of time and position.

The mathematical function, Ei, is the exponential integral and is

defined by:
 e u du  x x2 x3 
Ei ( x)    ln x     etc.
x u  1! 2(2!) 3(3!) 

The integral has been calculated as a function of x and is presented in

Table 7.1 and Fig. 7.11 (Craft & Hawkins, 2nd edition)
Table 7.1 & Fig. 7.11 (from Craft & Hawkins, 2nd edition)
 Example
Consider a reservoir where oil is flowing and;

o  0.72cp ct  15 10 6 psi 1

B0  1.475bbl / STB   23.4%
k  100md pi  3000 psia
h  15 ft

After the well is produced at 200 STB/day for 10 days, the pressure at a
radius of 1000 ft will be;
70.6qB   ct r 2 
p(r , t )  pi   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 

70.6(200)(0.72)(1.475)   (0.234)(0.72)(15 10 6 )(1000) 2 

p  3000   Ei   
(100)(15)   0.00105 (100 )(10  24) 
p  3000  10.0 Ei (0.10)

From Fig. 7.11, Ei(-0.10) = -1.82

Therefore
p = 3000 + 10.0(-1.82) = 2981.8 psia
 Example from Craft & Hawkins
(2nd edition)

From Fig. 7.11, Ei(-0.10) = -1.82

 For small Ei function argument
Approximation can be made;
 Ei ( x)   ln( x)  0.5772

The approximation is valid when considering pressures at the point of

disturbance e.g. at the wellbore. Therefore we can write,

70.6qB   ct r 2  
p(r , t )  pi    ln  
 0.00105kt   0.5772 
kh    

Substituting the log base 10 and rearranging;

162.6qB   kh  
p(r , t )  pi   
log  
2 
 3.23
kh   ct r  

The above equation serves as the basis for a well testing procedure
called transient well testing.
Radial flow of compressible fluids, transient flow
Recall
0.234   k p  p 
 0.001127 r   c f 
r r   r  t t

For compressible fluids;

pV  znR' T
1 1 dz
cg  
p z dp
Combining the three equations,

1    p  p  ct p p
r    
r r   z  r  0.0002637kz t

Al-Hussainy et. al. introduced a transformation of variables to obtain a

solution to the above equation, which involves the real gas
pseudopressure, m(p).
p p
m( p )  2  dp
pR z
Radial flow of compressible fluids, transient flow
Further, we can write
 2 m( p) 1 m( p) ct m( p)
 
r 2
r r 0.0002637k t

Which serves as the diffusivity equation for compressible fluids

Al-Hussainy and Ramey used finite difference techniques to obtain an

approximate solution to the above equation,

1637(10)3 qT   kt 
m( pwf )  m( pi )   
log   3.23 
kh 
  i ti wc r 2

 Graphical determination of m(p)

Which serves as the diffusivity equation for compressible fluids

p1 p
m( p1 )  2(area1 )  2 dp
pR z
Fluid flow in Porous Media

PSEUDOSTEADY-STATE FLOW
SYSTEMS
 Pseudosteady-state flow systems
• For transient, reservoir is infinite in size (not
affected by boundaries)
• As soon as the flow begins to feel the effect of
the boundary, it is no longer in the transient
regime.
• New assumption which lead to different
solution to the radial diffusivity equation.
Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids,
pseudosteady-state regime
Recall the diffusivity eqaution

 2 p 1 p ct p
  
r 2 r r 0.0002637k t

Need to specify one initial condition, and two boundary conditions.

initial condition:
p = pi at t = 0 Same as in transient

boundary conditions;

i.Flow rate is constant at the wellbore and is given by Darcy’s equation,

kh  p 
q  0.001127 (2r )  Same as in transient
B  t  r  rw
p
ii.For pseudosteady-state period, at r = re, 0
r
 Solution to the diffusivity equation,
pseudosteady-state regime
Combining the initial and boundary conditions,

162.6qB  4 A  0.2339qBt
pwf  pi  log  2

kh 1.781 C A w 
r Ahct

Where;
A is the drainage area (ft2)

CA is the reservoir shape factor ( Table 7.2, C&H)

The equation is valid only for sufficiently long enough times for the
flow to have reached the pseudo-steady state time period.

After reaching pseudo-steady state flow, the pressure at every point

in the reservoir is changing at the same rate. The volumetric
average reservoir pressure, is the pressure used to calculate fluid
n
properties in MBE  p jV j
j 1
p n

V
j 1
j
 Solution to the diffusivity equation,
pseudosteady-state regime
We can write

162.6qB  4A 
pwf  p  log  2
kh 1.781C A w 
r

For a well in the center of a circular reservoir with a distance to the

outer boundary of re,
70.6qB   re2  
pwf  p ln  2   1.5
kh   rw  
0.00708kh  p  pwf 
q  
B  ln( re / rw )  0.75 
 Radial flow of compressible fluids,
pseudosteady-state regime
Recall from previous derivation,

 2 m( p) 1 m( p) ct m( p)

 
r 2 r r 0.0002637k t

When the appropriate boundary conditions are applied.

19.88(10) 6 khTsc  m( p)  m( pwf ) 

q  
Tpsc  e w
ln( r / r )  0.75 
Fluid flow in Porous Media

MEASURE OF WELL POTENTIAL

 Productivity Index (PI)
• The• ratio of the rate of production to the pressure
drawdown at the midpoint of the producing interval
q
J Measured at pseudo-steady
p  pwf state period only

• In comparing one well with another in a given field,

particularly when production thickness (h) varies but
other factors affecting PI are essentially the same,
the specific productivity index (Js) is commonly used.
J q
Js   STB/day/psi/ft
h h( p  pwf )
Decline in PI at high flow rates
Possible causes;
a)Turbulence at high rates
b)Decrease in kro due to free
gas
c)Increase in μo at P<Pb
d)Reduction in k due to cf

As the kro decreases, krg

increases, which results in
rising GOR

The maximum rate a well

can produce depends on the
PI at prevailing reservoir
conditions and the available
pressure drawdown
 Injectivity Index (I)
• The• ratio of the injection rate to the excess pressure
above reservoir pressure that causes the injection
rate q
I STB/day/psi
pwf  p

• Used in injection wells;

– salt water disposal wells
– secondary recovery
– pressure maintenance.
 Productivity Ratio (PR)
• The ratio of the PI of a well in any condition to the PI of the
standard well.
• The standard well refers to;
– An open hole that completely penetrates a circular
formation normal to the srata.
– No alteration of permeability has occurred in the vicinity of
the wellbore
kh
J  0.00708
B(ln( re / rw )  0.75)
J
PR 
J sw
Fluid flow in Porous Media

SUPERPOSITION
 Superposition with space
The addition of solutions to a linear differential equation results in a new solution to the
original differential equation.

70.6qB   ct r 2 
p(r , t )  pi   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 
p  pi  p(r , t )
 Example 7.1
For the well layout shown, calculate the total pressure drop as measured in the
observation well (Well 3), caused by the four flowing wells (Wells 1, 2, 4 and 5)
after 10 days. The wells were shut in for a long time before opening them to flow.

Flow rate Distance to

Well (STB/day) Observation well
(ft)
1 265 1700
2 270 1920
4 287 1870
5 260 1690

Oil viscosity = 0.40 cp

k = 47 md
Porosity = 11.2%
Bo = 1.50 bbl/STB
h = 50 ft
ct = 15 x 10-6 psi-1
 Example 7.1 (solution)
70.6qB   ct r 2 
p(r , t )  pi   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 
70.6qB   ct r 2 
p  pi  p(r , t )   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 
70.6(265)(0.40)(1.50)   (0.112)(0.40)(15 10 6 )(1700) 2 
p1   Ei     4.78 Ei (0.164)  4.78(1.39)  6.6 psi
(47)(50)   0.00105 ( 47 )(10  24) 

Similarly,
p2  4.87 Ei (0.209)  5.7 psi
p4  5.14 Ei (0.198)  6.4 psi
p5  4.69 Ei (0.162)  6.6 psi

pt  p1  p2  p4  p5

pt  6.6  5.7  6.4  6.6  25.3 psi
Superposition with time
One well produced at two flow rates

70.6qB   ct r 2 
p  pi  p(r , t )   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 

70.6q1B   ct r 2 
p1   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 
70.6q2  q1 B   ct r 2 
p2   Ei   
kh   0.00105k t  t1  
pt  p1  p2
Image well for boundary problems

70.6qB   ct r 2 
p  pi  p(r , t )   Ei   
kh   0.00105kt 

70.6qB   ct r12 

p1   Ei   
kh   0.00105 kt 
70.6qB   ct r22 
pimage   Ei   
kh   0. 00105 kt 
pt  p1  pimage