INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

Instructed by: Dr. Sajid Zaidi

PhD in Advanced Mechanics, UTC, France
MS in Advanced Mechanics, UTC, France
B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering, UET, Lahore

B.TECH Mechanical Technology

IQRA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
 Intermetallic Compounds
 An intermetallic compound is made up of two or more
metallic elements, producing a new phase with its own
composition, crystal structure, and properties.
 Intermetallic compounds are almost always very hard and
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

brittle.
 Stoichiometric intermetallic compounds have a fixed
composition. Steels are often strengthened by a
stoichiometric compound, iron carbide (Fe3C), which has a
fixed ratio of three iron atoms to one carbon atom (6.7 % C).
 Another example is that of magnesium–lead system. The
compound Mg2Pb has a composition of 19 wt%Mg–81 wt%
Pb (33 atomic% Pb), and is represented as a vertical line on
the diagram, rather than as a phase region of finite width;
hence, Mg2Pb can exist by itself only at this precise
composition.
 Intermetallic Compounds
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

Magnesium – Lead Phase Digram

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Formation of Alloys – contd.
Three Phase Reactions
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 Steel, composed of primarily of iron and carbon, is
clearly the most imposrtant of the engineering materials.
 For this reason the iron –carbon equilibrium system
assumes special importance.
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

 The diagram most frequently encountered, however, is

not the full iron – carbon diagram but the iron – iron
carbide diagram.
 A stoichiometric intermeallic compound, Fe3C, us used
to terminate the carbon range ant 6.67 wt% carbon.
 There are four single phases within this diagram. Three
of these occur in pure iron, and the fourth is the carbide
intermetallic at 6.67% carbon.
INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS
Formation of Alloys – contd. Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 Pure iron when heated experiences two polymorphic
transformations in crystal structure before it melts.
 At room temperature the stable form, ferrite (α iron) has
a BCC crystal structure.
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

 Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to

FCC austenite (γ iron) at 912 ˚C (1674 ˚F).
 At 1394˚C (2541˚F) austenite reverts back to BCC phase
(δ ferrite) and melts at 1538 ˚C (2800 ˚F).
 All these changes are apparent along the left vertical
axis of the phase diagram.
 Normally, when no specific reference is made, the term
ferrite refers to the α ferrite, since this is the phase we
encounter more often during the heat treatment of steels.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 The composition axis of Iron – Iron Carbide Phase
Diagram extends only to 6.70 wt% C.
 At this concentration the intermediate compound iron
carbide, or cementite (Fe3C), is formed, which is
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

represented by a vertical line on the phase diagram.

 Thus, the iron–carbon system may be divided into two
parts: an iron-rich portion, and the other (not shown) for
compositions between 6.70 and 100 wt% C (pure
graphite).
 In practice, all steels and cast irons have carbon contents
less than 6.70 wt% C; therefore, we consider only the
iron–iron carbide system.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron and forms a
solid solution with each of α and δ ferrites, and also with
austenite, as indicated by the α, γ, and δ single phase
fields in diagram.
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

 In the BCC ferrite, only small concentrations of carbon

are soluble; the maximum solubility is 0.022 wt% at
727ºC.
 The limited solubility is explained by the shape and size
of the BCC interstitial positions, which make it difficult
to accommodate the carbon atoms.
 Even though present in relatively low concentrations,
carbon significantly influences the mechanical
properties of ferrite. This particular iron–carbon phase is
relatively soft, may be made magnetic at temperatures
below 768ºC, and has a density of 7.88 g/cm3.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 The austenite, or γ phase of iron, when alloyed with just
carbon, is not stable below 727ºC.
 The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, 2.14
wt%, occurs at 1147ºC. This solubility is approximately
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

100 times greater than the maximum for BCC ferrite,

since the FCC interstitial positions are larger, and,
therefore, the strains imposed on the surrounding iron
atoms are much lower.
 Phase transformations involving austenite are very
important in the heat treating of steels. In passing, it
should be mentioned that austenite is nonmagnetic.
 The δ ferrite is virtually the same as α ferrite, except for
the range of temperatures over which each exists. Since
the ferrite is stable only at relatively high temperatures,
and has little engineering importance.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 Cementite (Fe3C) forms when the solubility limit of
carbon in α ferrite is exceeded below 727ºC .
 Fe3C will also coexist with the γ phase between 727 and
1147ºC.
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

 Mechanically, cementite is very hard and brittle; the

strength of some steels is greatly enhanced by its
presence.
 One eutectic exists for the iron–iron carbide system, at
4.30 wt% C and 1147ºC. The liquid solidifies to form
austenite and cementite phases.

 A eutectoid point exists at a composition of 0.76 wt% C

and a temperature of 727ºC. Upon cooling, the solid γ
phase is transformed into α iron and cementite.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 In the classification scheme of ferrous alloys based on
carbon content, there are three types: iron, steel, and cast
iron.
 Pure iron contains less than 0.008 wt% C and is
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Formation of Alloys – contd.

composed almost exclusively of the ferrite phase at

room temperature.
 The iron–carbon alloys that contain between 0.008 and
2.14 wt% C are classified as steels. In most steels the
microstructure consists of both α and Fe3C phases. Upon
cooling to room temperature, an alloy within this
composition range must pass through at least a portion
of the γ phase field
 Although a steel alloy may contain as much as 2.14 wt%
C, in practice, carbon concentrations rarely exceed 1.0
wt%.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
 Cast irons are classified as ferrous alloys that contain
between 2.14 and 6.70 wt% C. However, commercial
cast irons normally contain less than 4.5 wt% C.
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Formation of Alloys – contd.