Engineering Materials-II Short Note

Prepared by: Wondimu D.

1. Phase Diagram
A phase is some portion of a body of material throughout which the physical and
chemical characteristics are homogeneous. Much of the information about the control of the
phase structure of a particular system is conveniently and concisely displayed in what is
called a phase diagram, also often termed an equilibrium diagram. Three externally
controllable parameters affect phase structure temperature, pressure, and composition and
phase diagrams are constructed when various combinations of these parameters are plotted
against one another.
Of all binary alloy systems, the one that is possibly the most important is that for iron
and carbon. Iron-Carbon phase diagram is defined as a map of the temperature at which
different phase changes occur on very slow heating and cooling in relation to carbon content.
It is isothermal and continuous cooling transformation diagrams for plain carbon and alloy
steels. These Iron- Carbon diagram shows the type of alloys formed under very slow cooling,
proper or suitable heat-treatment temperature and the properties of steels and cast irons can
be depend on changed by heat-treatment.
Both steels and cast irons, primary structural materials in every technologically advanced
culture, are essentially iron–carbon alloys. In iron–carbon phase diagram various phases are
appeared. These are ferrite, austenite, pearlite, cementite and martensite. But important
phases found on the iron–iron carbide phase diagram is 𝛼-ferrite (BCC), 𝛾-austenite (FCC)
and the intermetallic compound iron carbide or cementite (Fe3C). On the basis of
composition, ferrous alloys fall into three classifications: Irons (<0.008 wt.% C), Steels
(0.008 to 2.14 wt.% C) and Cast irons (>2.14 wt.% C).
Pure iron, upon heating, experiences two changes in crystal structure before it melts. At
room temperature, the stable form, called ferrite, or 𝛼-iron, has a BCC crystal structure.
Ferrite is known as α solid solution. It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of
carbon dissolved in α (BCC) iron and stable form of iron below 912°C. The maximum
solubility is 0.022 % C at 723°C and it dissolves only 0.008 % C at room temperature. It is
the softest structure that appears on the diagram. The general property of ferrite is ductile,
highly magnetic and it has a low tensile strength and also the softest of iron-carbon phases.
The 𝛿-ferrite is virtually the same as 𝛼-ferrite, except for the range of temperatures over
which each exists. 𝛿-ferrite is stable at relatively high temperatures.

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 At 912°C the ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation from BCC crystal
structure to FCC austenite, or 𝛾-iron. Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon
dissolved in 𝛾 (F.C.C.) iron. The maximum solubility in austenite phase is 2.14 % C at
1147°C. High formability, most of heat treatments begin with this single phase. Austenite is
normally not stable at room temperature but under certain conditions it is possible to obtain
austenite at room temperature. The general property of austenite is generally soft, ductile,
non- magnetic and it is denser than ferrite.
Pearlite is a structure (i.e. consists of two phases) consists of alternate layers of ferrite
and cementite. It is formed from austenite at eutectoid temperature 727°C upon slow cooling.
Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.76 % C and is formed at 727°C on very slow
cooling. It is a very fine plate like or lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite. Pearlite has
properties intermediate between those of the soft, ductile ferrite and the hard, brittle
cementite.
Cementite or iron carbide, is very hard, brittle intermetallic compound of iron & carbon,
as Fe3C, contains 6.7 % C. It is found in steel containing over 0.76% carbon when it cools. It
is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram, exact melting point unknown. The
amount of cementite increases with increasing the percentage of carbon in iron. Its property is
low tensile strength, but high compressive strength. Cementite is only metastable that is it
remains as a compound indefinitely at room temperature.
Martensite is a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite. It is formed when steel
is cooled so rapidly that the change from austenite to pearlite is suppressed. The interstitial
carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite into a BC-tetragonal structure (BCT); responsible for the
hardness of quenched steel.
The development of microstructure for many iron–carbon alloys and steels depend on a
eutectoid reaction in which the austenite phase of composition 0.76 wt.% C transforms
isothermally (at 727°C) into 𝛼-ferrite (0.022 wt.% C) and cementite (i.e., 𝛾 → 𝛼 + Fe3C).
The microstructural product of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition is pearlite, a
microconstituent consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. The microstructures
of alloys having carbon contents less than the eutectoid (i.e., hypo eutectoid alloys) are
composed of a proeutectoid ferrite phase in addition to pearlite. Pearlite and proeutectoid
cementite constitute the microconstituents for hypereutectoid alloys those with carbon
contents in excess of the eutectoid composition.
Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys are: -

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  Martensitic steels are the hardest and strongest, yet most brittle.
 Tempered martensite is very strong but relatively ductile.
 Bainite has a desirable strength-ductility combination but is not as strong as
tempered martensite.
 Fine pearlite is harder, stronger, and more brittle than coarse pearlite.
 Spheroidite is the softest and most ductile of the microstructures discussed.
 Embrittlement of some steel alloys results when specific alloying and impurity
element are present and upon tempering within a definite temperature range.
2. Iron and Steel Production
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. By mass it is the most
common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. Pure iron is soft
(softer than Aluminum). The material is significantly hardened and strengthened by
impurities, in particular carbon, from the smelting process. A certain proportion of carbon
(between 0.002% and 2.1%) produces steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure
iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron,
which has high carbon content. Further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to
the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and low carbon iron alloys along with other
metals (alloy steels) are the most common metals in industrial use, due to their great range of
desirable properties and the abundance of iron.
The process of manufacturing iron from iron ore is called iron making with in the Blast
Furnace. Blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace equipment used for smelting to
produce industrial metals, generally iron, but also others such as lead or copper. The input
material in iron production are iron ores, limestone, coke coal and hot gases. Iron is the 4th
most abundant element and makes up more than 5% of the earth’s crust. Typically, a deposit
must contain at least 25% iron to be considered economically recoverable. Iron exists

naturally in iron ore (sometimes called ironstone). Over 300 minerals contain iron but five
are the primary sources of iron-ore minerals. These are Magnetite ( Fe3 O 4), Hematite ( Fe2 O 3
), Siderite ( F e CO3 ), Goethite ( Fe2 O3 H 2 O) and Pyrite ( F e S 2). The first three are the major
ores used in the production of iron and steel; because of their occurrence in large
economically minable deposits. Among the three ores hematite ( Fe2 O3) is the most principal
ore source of iron. Limestone (CaCO3) is used as a flux to reacts with coke to remove the
impurities in the molten iron as slag. Coke coal is burns and produces the heat to melt the

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iron ore and used as a reducing agent. Hot gases which are (CO , H 2 , CO 2 , H 2 O , N 2 ,O 2 , and
fuels) used to burn coke.
The process of producing iron by blast furnace is the ore, together with coke as a fuel,
and limestone to make a fusible slag with the gangue or waste material, is charged to the top
of the furnace and a high-pressure blast of hot air is blown into the furnace through a series of
jets, or tuyeres, situated just above the hearth. The coke is partially burnt and the hot carbon
monoxide produced reduces the oxides of iron to the metal. Liquid iron collects in the hearth
and the waste material collects as a liquid slag which floats on top of the iron. The iron from
the blast furnace may be cast into molds to give small ingots, or pigs, or transferred in liquid
form to the steel-making furnaces as hot metal.
Pig iron is the impure product of the blast furnace when cast into small ingots, or pigs.
Cast iron is selected grades of pig iron re-melted in a cupola and cast into shapes in sand
molds. Wrought iron is refined iron containing a certain amount of slag. Wrought iron was
made by the puddling process, in which molten iron from the blast furnace was refined by
oxidation, using a slag rich in iron oxide as an oxidizing agent. Ingot iron is the purest
commercial form of iron. It is made by giving iron from the blast furnace the maximum
possible refining in a steel-making furnace.
Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon that is obtained by re-melting pig-iron
with coke, limestone and steel scrap in a cupola furnace. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the
main alloying elements, with the amount ranging from 2.1 wt.% to 4-5 wt.% and 1–3 wt.%,
respectively. It also contains small amounts of manganese, phosphorus and Sulphur in form
of impurities elements. The property of cast iron is, it tends to be brittle except for malleable
cast irons. With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity, good casting characteristics,
high compressive strength, low cost poor machinability, resistance to deformation and wear
resistance, and weak in tension. It cannot be used for making bolts and machine parts which
are liable to tension. Since the cast iron is a brittle material and therefore, it cannot be used in
those parts of machines which are subjected to shocks. The compressive strength of cast iron
is much greater than the tensile strength. Cast iron classified as grey cast iron, white cast iron,
ductile cast iron, malleable cast iron and alloy cast iron.
Gray cast iron accounts for the largest tonnage among the cast irons. It has a
composition in the range 2.5%–4% carbon and 1%–3% silicon. This chemistry results in the
formation of graphite (carbon) flakes distributed throughout the cast product upon
solidification. The structure causes the surface of the metal to have a gray color when

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fractured; hence the name gray cast iron. White cast iron has less carbon and silicon than
gray cast iron. It is formed by more rapid cooling of the molten metal after pouring. When
fractured, the surface has a white crystalline appearance that gives the iron its name. Owing
to the cementite, white cast iron is hard and brittle, and its wear resistance is excellent.
Ductile cast iron is an iron with the composition of gray iron in which the molten metal is
chemically treated before pouring to cause the formation of graphite spheroids rather than
flakes. Malleable cast iron is formed when castings of white cast iron are heat-treated to
separate the carbon out of solution and form graphite aggregates, the resulting metal is called
malleable iron. Alloy cast irons are cast irons can be alloyed for special properties and
applications.
Steel is defined as an iron–carbon alloy containing a high proportion of iron with some
carbon content usually 0.1 to 2.14 %. Steels are widely used in construction and other
applications because of their high tensile strength and low cost. Steel with 0.1% and 2.1%
carbon is harder than wrought iron, yet malleable and flexible, unlike cast iron. Cast iron
contain carbon from 2.14% C up to about 4% or 5%, hard but brittle and nonmalleable
Wrought iron contain carbon less than 0.08 %, hard without losing its malleability.
In production of steels, the main raw material used for production are either hot metal
from the blast furnace (pig iron) or steel scrap, or a mixture of both. Several methods of
processing steels among them cementation process, Bessemer process, open-hearth furnace,
basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric-arc furnace (EAF). Cementation process is the first
equipment used to make steel from bars of wrought iron would be packed in powdered
charcoal, layer upon layer, in tightly covered stone boxes and heated. After several days of
heating, the wrought iron bars would absorb carbon; to distribute the carbon more evenly, the
metal would be broken up, re-bundled with charcoal powder, and reheated. The result of this
process is blister steel and then heated again and brought under a forge hammer to give it a
more consistent texture. In Bessemer process, the mass-production of cheap steel only
became possible. In this type of steel making process the carbon in molten pig iron bonds
freely with oxygen, so a strong blast of air through molten pig iron was added for reducing its
carbon content. In the Bessemer process a charge of iron could be converted into steel, but
the presence of nitrogen rendered the steel unsuitable for some applications involving deep
drawing or some other cold forming processes. The open-hearth process gave a better-quality
product, but the length of the refining process was much greater, increasing the cost of the
steel. In addition, in this furnace where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out from

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pig iron to produce steel and it allows for the production of larger batches of steel than the
Bessemer process and the recycling of scrap metal.
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) is depend upon injection of pure oxygen into the melt of
the hot metal in order to burn impurities. The oxygen burns out the carbon as carbon
monoxide CO and carbon dioxide CO 2 gas. It provides a high productivity of steel with low
levels of impurities. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is another equipment next to BOF in which
it is used to convert ferrous scrap into steel. Pig iron was originally used as the charge in this
furnace, scrap iron & scrap steel are the primary raw materials today. Electric arc furnaces
are available in several designs; the direct arc type is currently the most economical type.
These furnaces have removable roofs for charging from above; tapping is accomplished by
tilting the entire furnace. Scrap iron and steel selected for their compositions, together with
alloying ingredients and limestone (flux), are charged into the furnace. They are heated by an
electric arc that flows between large electrodes and the charge metal.
Many alloy steels are made in electric furnaces. The direct arc type of furnace is
generally used for the production of low-alloy steels containing nickel and chromium, while
high-alloy and special steels are made by crucible methods, usually using high-frequency
induction furnaces.
A plain carbon steel is a steel containing up to 1.5 per cent of carbon, together with not
more than 0.5 percent of silicon and not more than 1.5 percent of manganese, and with only
traces of other elements. An alloy steel is one that contains either silicon or manganese in
amounts in excess of those quoted above, or that contains any other element, or elements, as
the result of deliberately made alloying additions.
The hardness and strength of steels vary very considerably with both carbon content and
type of heat treatment. Depending upon the carbon content, a plain carbon steels can divide in
to dead carbon steel (0.05 to 0.15% carbon), low carbon or mild steel (0.2% to 0.45%
carbons), medium carbon steel (0.45% to 0.8% carbon) and high carbon steel (0.8% to 1.5%
carbon). Dead carbon steel possesses very low percentage of carbon varying from 0.05 to

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0.15%. They have a tensile strength of 390 N /mm and hardness of about 115 BHN. They

applied for Steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipes, nail, chain, camshafts, fan blades, welded
turbine, forgings, stamping, automobile body etc. Low carbon steel is sometimes known as
mild steel. Contains 0.2 to 0.45% C which has tensile strength of 555 N /mm2 and hardness of
140 BHN. Possesses bright fibrous structure. It is tough, malleable, ductile and more elastic

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than wrought iron. They can be easily forged, welded and absorb shocks. Its melting point is
about 1410°C and rusts easily(disadvantage). It is used for making angle, channels, case
hardening steel, rods, tubes, valves, gears, crankshafts, connecting rods, railway axles, fish
plates, small forgings, free cutting steel shaft and forged components etc. Medium carbon
steel contains carbon from 0.45 to 0.8%, possesses having bright fibrous structure when
fractured. It is tough and more elastic in comparison than wrought iron. It can be easily
forged, welded, elongated due to ductility and beaten (flattened) into sheets due to its good
malleability. Its tensile strength is better than cast iron and wrought iron but compressive
strength is better than wrought iron but lesser than cast iron. It is used for making railway
coach axles, crank pins, crankshafts, axles, spline shafts, loco tires, drop forging dies, die
blocks, bolt heading dies, self-tapping screws, valve spring, lock washers, hammers, cold
chisels, hacksaws, jaws for vices etc. High carbon steels (HCS) contain carbon from 0.8 to
1.5%. Because of their high hardness, these are suitable for wear resistant parts. Spring steel
is also high carbon steel. It is available in annealed and pre-tempered strips and wires. It loses
their hardness at temperature from 200°C to 250°C. They may only be used in the
manufacture of cutting tools operating at low cutting speeds.
Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between
1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Every steel is truly an alloy,
but not all steels are called "alloy steels". Even the simplest steels are iron (Fe) (about 99%)
alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type). The term "alloy steel" is the
standard term referring to steels with other alloying elements in addition to the carbon. It is
possible to improve the properties of steels greatly by alloying with other elements. The
general effects of alloying elements in steels are as follows: -
 An alloying element entering into solid solution will increase the strength of the steel.
 Alloying elements reduce critical cooling velocities and, so, increase the hardenability
of a steel
 The alloying element could form stable carbides
 The alloying element may confer some property, characteristic of itself, on the steel.
 The alloying element could cause the breakdown of cementite, resulting in the
appearance of graphite in the structure of the steel. Nickel and silicon have this effect.
3. Ceramics
A ceramic is an inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semimetal) and one or
more nonmetals. Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements; they
are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The general properties that make ceramics
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useful in engineered products are high hardness, good electrical and thermal insulating
characteristics, chemical stability, and high melting temperatures. Some ceramics are
translucent window glass being the clearest example. They are also brittle and possess
virtually no ductility, which can cause problems in both processing and performance of
ceramic products. Ceramics generally have low toughness, although combining them in
composites can dramatically improve this property.
Most ceramic materials fall into an application–classification scheme that includes the
following groups: glasses, clay products, refractories, abrasives, cements, carbons and
advanced ceramics.
Glasses are typical application for containers, lenses, and fiberglass. They are optically
transparent and easy to fabrication. The process of transformation of glasses from a
noncrystalline state into crystalline state by the proper high-temperature heat treatment is
called crystallization, the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material that is Glass-
Ceramic. A nucleating agent (frequently titanium dioxide) is often added to the glass to
promote crystallization. The presence of a nucleating agent shifts the begin and end
transformation curves to shorter times. Glass-ceramic have the property of relatively high
mechanical strengths, low coefficients of thermal expansion (to avoid thermal shock), good
high-temperature capabilities and good biological compatibility. They are applied for
ovenware, tableware, oven windows, and range tops.
Clay products are formed by mixing clay and water in the proper proportion form a
plastic mass that is very amenable to shaping. Clay is inexpensive ingredient and naturally
abundant raw material. The formed piece clay products are dried to remove some of the
moisture, after which it is fired at an elevated temperature to improve its mechanical strength.
Clay products are classified as structural clay products and whiteware ceramics. The former
is needed for structural integrity and it is important for e.g. bricks, tiles, and sewer pipes. The
later one which is become white after high-temperature firing e.g. porcelain, pottery,
tableware, china, and sanitary ware.
Refractories has the capacity to withstand high temperatures without melting or
decomposing and the capacity to remain unreactive and inert when exposed to severe
environments (e.g., hot and corrosive fluids). They also provided as thermal insulation,
support mechanical loads and resistance to thermal shock. Most common refractories are
made from natural materials: for example, refractory oxides such as SiO2, Al2 O3 , MgO, CaO,
Cr 2 O3, and ZrO 2. Its application are linings for furnaces smelters that refine metals, furnaces

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used for glass manufacturing and metallurgical heat treatments, cement kilns and power
generators.
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material. The primary
requisite for such materials is their hardness or wear resistance. Application of abrasives are
grinding, polishing, lapping, drilling, cutting, sharpening, buffing, and sanding. Abrasive
materials are classified as naturally occurring and manufactured. Diamond is fall into both
classifications. Factors that influence the rate of surface removal and the abraded surface
smoothness are difference in hardness between abrasive and work-piece, grain size and
contact force.
Cements are when mixed with water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and
hardens. Some of cement materials act as a bonding phase that binds particulate aggregates
into a single cohesive structure. One of cement materials is Portland cement, which is
consumed largest tonnage and produced by calcination process. Calcination is a process of
grinding and intimately mixing clay and lime-bearing minerals in the proper proportions and
then heating the mixture to about 1400°C in a rotary kiln. Portland cement is termed a
hydraulic cement since hardness develops by chemical reactions with water. It is used in
mortar and concrete to bind aggregates of inert particles.
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which
melting occurs. There are five different forming methods are used to fabricate glass products.
 Pressing is used in the fabrication of relatively thick-walled pieces such as plates
and dishes.
 Blowing: is done by hand for art objects, the process has been completely
automated for the production of glass jars, bottles, and light bulbs.
 Drawing: is used to form long glass pieces that have a constant cross section,
such as sheet, rod, tubing, and fibers.
 Sheet Forming: the molten glass passes (on rollers) from one furnace onto a bath
of liquid tin located in a second furnace.
 Glass fiber forming: Fibers are formed by drawing the molten glass through
many small orifices at the chamber base
Clay minerals has hydroplasticity property (when mix with water they become very
plastic) and a dense and strong ceramic piece may be produced by firing with range of
temperature without melting the desired shape can be maintained. Clays are aluminosilicates
composed of alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) that contain chemically bound water. The
fabrication technique of clay products is by hydroplastic forming and slip casting.
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4. Polymers
Polymers are long chain organic molecules assembled from many smaller molecules
called monomers. Most polymers are organic, meaning that they are carbon-based
(hydrocarbon composed of carbon and hydrogen bonded covalently); however, polymers can
be inorganic (e.g., silicones based on a Si-O network). Generally, polymeric materials are
composed of very large molecular chains with side groups of various atoms (O, Cl, etc.) or
organic groups such as methyl, ethyl, or phenyl groups. Polymerization is the process by
which small molecules consisting of one unit (known as a monomer) or a few units (known
as oligomers) are chemically joined to create these giant molecules. Polymerization normally
begins with the production of long chains in which the atoms are strongly joined by covalent
bonding.
Polymers classified as based on origin of source of material as natural polymers and
synthetic polymers; based on the molecular structure as linear polymers, branched polymers,
crosslinked polymers and network polymers; and based on the behavior with rising
temperature as thermoplastics (thermoplastic polymers) and thermosets (thermosetting
polymers). Natural polymers are polymers which are derived from plants and animals such as
wood, cotton, wool, leather and silk. Synthetic polymers are developed by synthesizing small
molecules. e.g. Plastics, rubber fiber materials etc. Linear polymers are polymers in which the
mer units(monomers) are connected together end to end along the whole single length of a
chain. These polymers are often quite flexible. There is an extensive van der Waals and
hydrogen bonding between the chains. Some examples are polyethylene, PVC, polystyrene,
nylon, and the fluorocarbons. Branched polymers are polymers may be synthesized in which
side-branch chains are connected to the main ones. The branches result from side reactions
that occur during the synthesis of the polymer. The chain packing efficiency is reduced
because of branches which lowers the polymer density. Examples are high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). In the crosslinked polymers the
adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various positions by covalent bonds.
Crosslinking is accomplished by additive atoms or molecules that are covalently bonded to
the chains. Examples: rubber elastic materials: for rubber the process is called vulcanization.
Network polymers the multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent
bonds make three dimensional networks. A highly crosslinked polymer also classified as
network polymer. Examples: Epoxies, Polyurethanes and Phenol-formaldehyde.
Thermoplastic polymers also known as thermoplastics are solid materials at room
temperature, but they become viscous liquids when heated to temperatures of only a few
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hundred degrees. This characteristic allows them to be easily and economically shaped into
products. They can be subjected to this heating and cooling cycle repeatedly without
significant degradation. Because of the weak attractive forces between chains, they are
broken by heat. Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures with
flexible chains are thermoplastic. Examples of thermoplastic polymers include PE, PS, PVC
etc. Thermosetting polymers or thermosets, cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles as
thermoplastics can; when initially heated, they soften and flow for molding, but the elevated
temperatures also produce a chemical reaction that hardens the material into an infusible
solid. If reheated, Thermosetting polymers degrade and char rather than soften. They are
network polymers in which there is covalent crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains
(10-50% of the chain repeat units are cross-linked). Thermoset polymers are generally harder,
stronger and better dimensional stability than thermoplastics. Examples of thermoset
polymers are Vulcanized Rubbers, Epoxies, Phenolics and Polyester resins.
Polymers have lower density compared to other type of engineering materials. Besides
their mechanical property of polymers are dissimilar to those of the metallic and ceramic
materials. In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic),
which means they are easily formed into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert
chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments. One major drawback to the
polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in
some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are
nonmagnetic They are not as stiff or strong as other material types. The mechanical
characteristics of polymers are highly sensitive to the rate of deformation (strain rate), the
temperature, and the chemical nature of the environment (the presence of water, oxygen,
organic solvents, etc.). For example: increasing the temperature produces: - a decrease in
elastic modulus, a reduction in tensile strength and an enhancement of ductility.
Based on the application of polymeric materials, they are classified as plastics,
elastomers, fibers, coatings, adhesives, foams, and films. Plastics are materials that are
composed principally of naturally occurring and modified or artificially made polymers often
containing additives such as fibers, fillers, pigments, and the like that further enhance their
properties. Plastics include thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers (natural or synthetic).
They are materials that have some structural rigidity under load and are used in general-
purpose applications. Polymers classified as plastics are: - Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly
(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, and the fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters.
Elastomers sustain elastic deformations greater than 200%. They may be thermoplastics or
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lightly cross-linked thermosets. The polymer chains consist of coil-like molecules that can
reversibly stretch by applying a force. Elastomers are often referred to as rubbers. Fiber
polymers are capable of being drawn into long filaments having at least a 100:1 length-to-
diameter ratio. They are used in the textile industry, being woven or knit into cloth or fabric.
They must have a high tensile strength and a high modulus of elasticity, as well as abrasion
resistance because they are subject to stretching, twisting, shearing, and abrasion. Coating is
needed for the following function: - to protect the item from the environment, to improve the
item’s appearance and to provide electrical insulation. An adhesive is a substance used to
bond together the surfaces of two solid materials (termed adherends) Natural adhesives
(animal glue, casein, starch, and rosin) and synthetic adhesives (polyurethanes, polysiloxanes
(silicones), epoxies, polyimides, acrylics, and rubber materials). Films are fabricated and used
extensively as bags for packaging food products. Polymers such as polyethylene,
polypropylene, cellophane, and cellulose acetate can be used for films.
Polymer additives like fillers are materials which are added to polymers to improve
tensile and compressive strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness, dimensional and thermal
stability. Plasticizers are used to improve flexibility, ductility, and toughness of polymers.
They are generally liquid and used PVC and acetate copolymers. Stabilizers are additives that
counteract deteriorative processes which may be by ultraviolet radiation (UV) and oxidation.
Colorants are used to impart the color of polymer. They are added in the form of dyes
(dissolve in polymer) or pigment (filler materials that don't dissolve by polymer). Flame
retardants: most polymers are flammable in their pure form therefore the flammability
property of polymer enhanced by flame retardant additive.
Forming techniques of polymer materials depends on material type (thermoplastic or
thermosetting), the temperature, the atmospheric stability of the material being formed and
final product geometry and size. Compression molding is process in which a metered amount
of polymer and additives is placed in a heated die and compressed to the desired dimensions.
It is used for fabrication of both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers but appropriate for
thermosets. Transfer molding is, a modified version of compression molding, a process in
which material is fed into the pot of a transfer mold, heated, and then forced under pressure
into an adjoining cavity of the same mold. Injection molding is most widely used technique
for fabricating thermoplastic materials. In injection molding the polymer is fed into a heated
injection chamber, melted, and then forced by a ram into the mold cavity. Extrusion is similar
to metal extrusion in which the polymer is forced through a nozzle with the desired cross-
sectional configuration. The technique is used to producing continuous lengths having
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constant cross-section such as rods, tubes, hose, sheets, and filaments. Blow molding is a
process in which a gob of plastic is formed and then blown into a mold of the desired shape.
Calendering is essentially a rolling operation in which a putty-like mass of thermoplastic
material is passed through heated rolls, which work it into a sheet of uniform thickness.
5. Composite Materials
Composite is defined as two or more chemically distinct (differ in shape) materials are
combined; which have improved properties over the individual materials and are insoluble in
each other. Composite materials may be selected to give unusual combinations of stiffness,
strength, density, high-temperature performance, corrosion resistance, hardness, or
conductivity. Composites are combinations of two materials in which one of the materials is
called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in
the other material called the matrix phase. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with
low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile or tough material. If the composite is
designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the
toughness of the matrix to achieve combination of desirable properties not available in any
single conventional materials. Composites created to improve combinations of mechanical
characteristics such as stiffness, toughness, and ambient and high-temperature strength.
Generally, the essence of a composite is that take two or more very different materials and
put them together to form a product with some properties greater than those of the original
materials. A composite material consists of two phases: primary phases: forms the matrix
within which the secondary phase is imbedded. and secondary phases: referred to as the
imbedded phase or called the reinforcing agent; serves to strengthen the composite. The
phases are generally insoluble in each other, but strong adhesion must exist at their
interface(s).
The functions of a matrix are to holds the fibers together, protects the fibers from
environment, distributes the loads evenly between fibers so that all fibers are subjected to the
same amount of strain, determine the processability of composites, improves impact and
fracture resistance of a component, helps to avoid propagation of crack growth and provide a
barrier against an adverse environment. Composite materials are classified based on the
matrix material as metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic matrix composites (CMC),
polymer matrix composites (PMC), carbon-carbon matrix (CCM) and hybrid composites.
MMCs are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and
embedded or dispersed phase: a ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten,
molybdenum) phase. CMCs are composed of a ceramic matrix and imbedded or dispersed
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phase are: fibers of other ceramic material. They can be described as solid materials which
exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. PMCs are
composed of two main kinds of polymer matrix which thermoset (Unsaturated polyester
(UP), Epoxy), they have an application for chopped fiber composites and thermoplastic
(PVC, Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded or dispersed phase: fibers of glass, carbon, steel or
Kevlar. CCCs are composed of a carbon matrix into which reinforcing carbon fibers are
embedded. Carbon and graphite have highly resistance to high temperature. Their
dimensional stability makes them the oblivious choice in the applications related to military
industry and space technology. Concrete is a ceramic matrix composite, while asphalt and
wood polymer matrix composites. Hybrid composites are relatively new fiber-reinforced
composite is the hybrid, which is obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a
single matrix; Hybrids have a better all-around combination of properties than composites
containing only a single fiber type. The principal applications for hybrid composites are
lightweight land; water, and air transport structural components; and sporting goods, and
lightweight orthopedic components.
The purpose of reinforcing phase material is to reinforce the primary phase. There are
five basic secondary phases of composite materials; fiber, flake, filled composites, particle
and laminar or layered composites. Fibers are filaments of reinforcing material, generally
circular in cross-section, alternative shapes are sometimes used (e.g., tubular, rectangular,
hexagonal). They satisfy the desired conditions and transfer strength to the matrix. the most
common fibers used in composites are: glass, graphite (carbon) boron and Kevlar 49 ceramics
and metal. Glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) is most widely used fiber in polymer
composites. Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites are made into high-
modulus fibers. They have stiffness, low-density and low-thermal expansion and their tensile
strength is three to five times stronger than steel as well as a density of one-fourth of that of
steel. Particles composites is a second common shape of the embedded phase is particulate,
ranging in size from microscopic to macroscopic. Particles are an important material form for
metals and ceramics. In flakes composites, flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be
densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close contact with each other in polymer matrices can
conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes and glass can resist both. They are basically
two-dimensional particles- small flat platelets. Filled composites are result from the addition
of filer materials to plastic matrices to replace a portion of the matrix, and enhance or change
the properties of the composites. The fillers also enhance strength and reduce weight.
Laminar composites consist of two or more layers bonded together to form an integral piece.
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The layers are often of different materials, but not necessarily. Examples of laminar
composites are automotive tires, honeycomb sandwich, plywood, snow skis, windshield glass
and fiber reinforced polymers.
6. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
The destruction of a material by a chemical or electrochemical process through
interaction with its environment. Typically, this is a transfer of electrons from one metal to
another which is an oxidation-reduction reaction. The corrosion of a metal is a chemical
process by which the metal is oxidized. Changes in properties due to the interaction
(mechanical – ductility or strength, physical properties, or appearance). Corrosion causes
deterioration of all types of materials. Deteriorative mechanisms are different for the three
material types. In metals there is actual material loss either by dissolution (corrosion) or by
the formation of nonmetallic scale or film (oxidation). Ceramic materials are relatively
resistant to deterioration, which usually occurs at elevated temperatures or in rather extreme
environments; the process is frequently also called corrosion. For polymers, mechanisms and
consequences differ from those for metals and ceramics, and the term degradation is most
frequently used. Polymers may dissolve when exposed to a liquid solvent, or they may absorb
the solvent and swell; also, electromagnetic radiation (primarily ultraviolet) and heat may
cause alterations in their molecular structures. There are eight common type of corrosion,
these are uniform (rust), galvanic, crevice, pitting, intergranular, selective leaching, erosion-
corrosion and stress corrosion. Uniform corrosion is a form of electrochemical corrosion that
occurs with equivalent intensity over the entire exposed surface and often leaves behind a
scale or deposit. It is probably the most common form of corrosion. Galvanic corrosion
occurs when two metals or alloys having different compositions are electrically coupled
while exposed to an electrolyte. The less noble or more reactive metal in the particular
environment experiences corrosion; the more inert metal, the cathode, is protected from
corrosion. Crevice and pitting corrosion both are forms of localized corrosion. Occurs from
concentration differences of ions forming a concentration cell. Oxidation takes places with in
the pits or space between two metals. Intergranular corrosion occurs preferentially along
grain boundaries for specific metals/alloys (e.g., some stainless steels). Selective leaching is
found in solid solution alloys and occurs when one element or constituent is preferentially
removed as a consequence of corrosion processes. Erosion–corrosion arises from the
combined action of chemical attack and mechanical abrasion or wear as a consequence of
fluid motion. Virtually all metal alloys, to one degree or another, are susceptible to erosion–
corrosion. Stress corrosion, sometimes termed stress corrosion cracking, results from the
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combined action of an applied tensile stress and a corrosive environment; both influences are
necessary. It is the formation and propagation of cracks (and possible failure) resulting from
the combined effects of corrosion and the application of a tensile stress.
Several measures may be taken to prevent, or at least reduce, corrosion. These include
material selection, environmental alteration, the use of inhibitors, design changes, application
of coatings, and cathodic protection.
7. Heat Treatment of Metals
Heat Treatment is the heating and cooling operations of metals and alloys; for the
purpose of obtaining certain desirable properties. There are three stages of heat treatment.
These are heating, soaking and cooling. The primary objective in the heating stage is to
maintain uniform temperatures. After the metal is heated to the proper temperature, soaking
(holding) the metal at a given temperature for a given period of time until the desired internal
structural changes take place. Cooling in heat treatment is after a metal has been soaked, it
must be cooled the metal to room temperature to complete the heat-treating process. The rate
of cooling depends on the medium; therefore, the choice of a cooling medium has an
important influence on the desired properties.
There are several types of heat treatment, some of them are: -
 Annealing is a type of heat treatment process that is used for the primary purpose
of softening the metal and to relieve internal stresses, in order to make them
more ductile, and refine their grain structures, improve machinability and
eliminate structural in-homogeneity.
 Normalizing is a defined as softening process in which iron base alloys are
heated 40 to 50°C above the upper-critical temperature for both hypo and hyper
eutectoid steels and held there for a specified period and followed by cooling in
still /motionless/ air up to room temperature.
 Hardening is a hardness inducing kind of heat treatment process in which steel is
heated to a temperature above the critical point and held at that temperature for a
definite time and then quenched rapidly in water, oil or molten salt bath. It is
done to increase the strength and wear properties.
 Tempering is used to reduce the undesired needs by reheating and cooling at
constant bath temperature after it is hardened. Since after hardening steels
becomes extra hard, extra brittle and has unequal distribution of internal stresses
and strain.

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 Casehardening is the process of surface hardening of metal, often a low carbon
steel, by infusing elements into the material's surface, forming a thin layer of a
harder alloy.
 Surface hardening is used to impart desirable properties in the surface of the
component that are not needed (or achievable) through the part.

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