Antigen and Antibody Reactions

Detection By
Precipitation Methods

12/6/17 Dr.T.V.Rao MD 1
 Beginning of Serology
Serology as a science began in 1901. Austrian
American immunologist Karl Landsteiner
(1868-1943) identified groups of red blood
cells as A, B, and O. From that discovery came
the recognition that cells of all types, including
blood cells, cells of the body, and
microorganisms carry proteins and other
molecules on their surface that are recognized
by cells of the immune system.

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 Characteristics of Antigens
Immunogenicity property of substance
(immunogens or antigens) to induce a detectable
immune response
Antigenic specificity property of antigen
molecule (or its part) to react with the specific
antibody.
Antigenicity given by a surface structure of
immunogen - antigenic determinants. The
organism responds only to those that are foreign
to him.
The number of antigenic determinants usually
varies with the size and chemical complexity of
macromolecule (egg ovalbumin, MW 42 000, has 5
antigenic determinants and thyroglobulin, MW 700 000,
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 Characteristics of Antigens
Chemical nature of antigens:
proteins
polysaccharides
lipopolysaccharides
nucleoproteins
glycoproteins
steroid hormones
bacterial cells, viruses
synthetic polypeptides
synthetic polymers
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 Characteristics of Antibodies
(Immunoglobulins)
Proteins with the
property of specific
combination with
antigen (or one antigenic
determinant) which
elicited their formation.
Immunoglobulin's
account for ~ 20% of the
total plasma proteins.

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 Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943)
An Austrian physician by
training, Landsteiner
played an integral part
in the identification of
blood groups. He
demonstrated the
catastrophic effect of
transfusing with the
wrong type of blood,

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 Purpose of Serological Tests
Serological tests may be performed for
diagnostic purposes when an infection is
suspected, in rheumatic illnesses, and in many
other situations, such as checking an
individual's blood type. Serology blood tests
help to diagnose patients with certain immune
deficiencies associated with the lack of
antibodies, such as X-linked
agammaglobulinemia.
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 Serology
The branch of
laboratory medicine
that studies blood
serum for evidence of
infection and other
parameters by
evaluating antigen-
antibody reactions in
vitro

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 Serology
Serology is the
scientific study of
blood serum. In
practice, the term
usually refers to the
diagnostic
identification of
antibodies in the
serum
We can detect
antigens too
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 Serology Prerogative of
Microbiology
It is rather curious that, although serum
for a multitude of constituents in
biochemistry and haematological
laboratories, the term serology has come
to imply almost exclusively the detection
of antibodies in serum for antibodies in
infectious diseases, and terminology has
become prerogative of microbiologists.
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 Immunological Tests
A harmful agent can be detected
Toxins, viruses, hard to culture bacteria
Takes advantage of the specific nature of
antibodies
Rise in amount of antibody is an indicator
An increase in specific antibody is an indicator of
exposure, can confirm a diagnosis.
Antibodies bind, precipitate, and agglutinate.

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 Precipitation tests
When sufficient antigen and antibody molecules
interact, they precipitate out of solution
Too few antigen molecules, little ppt.
Too many, agn-aby cross links not made.
Examples
immunodiffusion: antibody and antigen react in agar
to make ppt band or ring.
Immunoelectrophoresis: complex mixture of antigens
separated, then reacted with antibody.

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 Precipitation Reaction as happens in
VITRO

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 Immunology/ Serology?
Precipitation Reactions
Capillary tube precipitation (Ring Test)
Ouchterlony Double Diffusion (Immunodiffusion)
Radialimmunodiffusion (RID)
Immunoelectrophoresis (IEP)
Rocket Electroimmunodiffusion (EID)
Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIEP)
The above tests have moved to
Biochemistry

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 Terms used in evaluating test
methodology

Sensitivity
Analytical Sensitivity ability of a test
to detect very small amounts of a
substance
Clinical Sensitivity ability of test to
give positive result if patient has the
disease (no false negative results)

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 Specificity
Analytical Specificity ability of test
to detect substance without
interference from cross-reacting
substances
Clinical Specificity ability of test to
give negative result if patient does
not have disease (no false positive
results)
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 Affinity
Affinity refers to the
strength of binding
between a single
antigenic determinant
and an individual
antibody combining site.
Affinity is the
equilibrium constant that
describes the antigen-
antibody reaction

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 Affinity
Antibody affinity is the strength of
the reaction between a single
antigenic determinant and a single
combining site on the antibody.
It is the sum of the attractive and
repulsive forces operating between
the antigenic determinant and the
combining site .
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 Avidity
Avidity is a measure of
the overall strength of
binding of an antigen
with many antigenic
determinants and
multivalent antibodies
Avidity is influenced by
both the valence of the
antibody and the
valence of the antigen.
Avidity is more than
the sum of the
individual affinities.
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 Dilution
Estimating the
antibody by
determining the
greatest degree to
which the serum may
be diluted without
losing the power to
given an observable
effect in a mixture
with specific antigen

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 Titer
Different dilutions
of serum are
tested in mixture
with a constant
amount of antigen
and greatest
reacting dilution is
taken as the
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measure or Titer
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 22
 Expression of Titers
Expressed in term of the
was in which they are
made
Dilution 1 in 8 is a
dilution made by mixing
one volume of serum
with seven volumes of
diluents (Normal Saline )
Incorrect to express
dilution
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as 1/8 Dr.T.V.Rao MD 23
 Common methods in creating
dilutions

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 Characteristics of Antibodies are Variable
(Immunoglobulins)
Variability of antibodies is subject to 5-
classes of Ig: G, A, M, D, E
Heavy chains g, a, m, d, e
Light chains k, l
Subclasses of immunoglobulins:
IgG g1, g2, g3, g4
IgA a1, a2
IgM - m1, m2
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 The forces binding antigen to antibody
Electrostatic : between attraction oppositely charged
ionic group (-NH3-) of lysine and (-COO-) of aspartate.
Hydrogen bonding relatively weak and reversible
hydrogen bridges between hydrophilic group (-OH, -NH2,
COOH).
Hydrophobic non-polar, hydrophobic side chains of
Val, Leu, Ile (hydrophobic groups come close together
and exclude water molecules between them. The
force of attraction increases.
Van der Waals forces which depend upon
interaction between the external electron clouds.
Non-specific attractive forces.
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 Antibody Affinity
k2
Ab + Ag AbAg
k1

K= = [AbAg] k1
Equilibrium constant
[Ab] [Ag] k2

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 The ratio of antigen / antibody

Prozone : Ab excess, Zone of equivalence- Post-zone excess of Ag

precipitate does not form optimal ratio of Ag/Ab (soluble immune
( (soluble immune insoluble precipitate complexes)
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complexes) Dr.T.V.Rao MD 28
 Precipitation Curve

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 Precipitation Curve

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 Precipitation Reactions
Ag-Ab interactions
can form visible
precipitate
Examples:
Radial
immunodiffusion
Double
immunodiffusion
immunoelectroph
oresis
 Precipitation
Principle
Soluble antigen + antibody (in proper proportions) >
visible precipitate
Lattice formation (antigen binds with Fab sites of 2
antibodies)
Examples
Double diffusion (Ouchterlony)
Single diffusion (radial Immunodiffusion)
Immunoelectrophoresis
Immunofixation
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 Precipitation in gels
Based on different rates of diffusion of Ag and Ab into
the gel, depending on their :
concentration
physicochemical properties
gel structure
Most widely used gels agar a agarose
Tests are performed by pouring molten agar (agarose)
onto glass slides

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 Immunoelectrophoresis
Antigenis1stputintowells,
chargeisappliedtoseparate
componentsofantigenmixture,
thentroughsarecutandantibody
isallowedtodiffuse
throughgel
 Precipitation and
Immunodiffusion in gels
Single (simple) diffusion in one dimension:
- the process of diffusion of an antigen in an antibody-containing
gel
- the process of diffusion of an antibody in an antigen-containing
gel.
Immunoprecipitin line is formed at the point of equivalence.

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 Precipitation and
Immunodiffusion in Gels
Double diffusion in two dimension

Similar precipitin Precipitin lines do Precipitin lines

lines not form a completely cross
complete cross

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 Precipitation and
Immunodiffusion in gels
Semiquantitative analysis of:
antigen antibody

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 Precipitation and
immunodiffusion in gels
Double diffusion is utilized as a
rough estimation of antigen or
antibody purity.
Double diffusion in agar can be
used for semi quantitative
analysis in human serological
system.
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Inthisexample,AntidogIgGis
Mixedinagarsoonlywhatis
Placedinwells(Ag)diffusesout
Immunoelectrophoresis

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 Precipitation and
Immunodiffusion in gels

Plasma
Immunoelectrophoresis
combines
(mixture of
antigens)

Electrophoresis
electrophoresis
Antiserum
(mixture of
separation,
diffusion and
antibodies)

precipitation of
Imunodiffusion

proteins.
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 Antigen and Antibody reactions can
be identified by different methods

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 Precipitation test
Radial Immunodiffusion (Mancini)
In radial Immunodiffusion Antigen (IgG antibody) is
incorporated into the agar gel as it is poured
different dilutions of the antibody are placed in holes
punched into the agar.
As the antibody diffuses into the gel it reacts with
the antigen and when the equivalence point is
reached a ring of precipitation is formed as
illustrated in Figure
The diameter of the ring is proportional to the
concentration of antibody since the amount of
antigen is constant.

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 Radial Immunodiffusion
(Mancini)
Thus, by running different concentrations of a
standard antibody one can generate a standard cure
from which one can quantitate the amount of an
antibody in an unknown sample.
Thus, this is a quantitative test.
If more than one ring appears in the test, more than
one antigen/antibody reaction has occurred. This
could be due to a mixture of antigens or antibodies.
This test is commonly used in the clinical laboratory
for the determination of immunoglobulin levels in
patient samples.
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 Electrophoresis

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 Advantages of Electrophoresis
Ease of use
Properties affecting separation
Suitability for appropriate stains or
other detection
Suitability for post electrophoretic
data analysis

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Double Immunodiffusion
Identification

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 Sero Conversion
Seroconversion is the
development of
detectable specific
antibodies to
microorganisms in the
blood serum as a result
of infection or
immunization.

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 Sero reversion
Seroreversion is the
opposite of
seroconversion. This
is when the tests can
no longer detect
antibodies or
antigens in a
patients serum

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 Testing paired Samples
Testing for infectious
diseases is performed on
acute and convalescent
specimens (about 2
weeks apart) Paired
sample.
Must see 4-fold or 2-
tube rise in titre to be
clinically significant
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 Antigen Antibody Reactions
presenting with precipitation

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 Screening Tests for Syphilis
Serologic methods are
divided into two classes.
One class, the
nontreponemal tests,
detects antibodies to
lipoidal antigens present
in either the host or T.
palladium; examples are
the Venereal Disease
Research Laboratory
and rapid plasma reagin
and tests.

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 Non reactive and Reactive VDRL Tests

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 Flocculation test
(A precipitation reaction)

(1) Non Reactive (2) Weakly Reactive (3,4) Reactive

 Measurement of Precipitation by
Light
Antigen-antibody complexes, when formed at
a high rate, will precipitate out of a solution
resulting in a turbid or cloudy appearance.
Turbidimetry measures the turbidity or
cloudiness of a solution by measuring amount
of light directly passing through a solution.
Nephelometry indirect measurement, measures
amount of light scattered by the antigen-antibody
complexes.
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 Programme Created by Dr.T.V.Rao MD
for Medical and Paramedical Students in
the Developing World
Email
[email protected]

12/6/17 Dr.T.V.Rao MD 61