GEOLOGICAL INFLUENCE ON CBM

ALEK AL HADI

JURUSAN TEKNIK PERTAMBANGAN

UNIVERSITAS SRIWIJAYA
2014
Course Outline
Introduction
DEFINITIONS
Coal is a sedimentary rock that had its origin as an

accumulation of inorganic and organic debris.

Coal is predominantly organic plant material, in

particular, wood, leaves, stems, twigs, seeds, spores,

pollen, and other parts of aquatic and land plants.
Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is a nutral gas containing
almost 100% methane (CH4) produced and
reservoired in coal seam.
DEFINITION OF COAL IN CBM INDUSTRY

In-situ coal is composed of mineral (ash),

carbonaceous material, and moisture (probably
equivalent to irreducible water).
In-situ coal = coal+ash+moisture

Macerals are the smallest organic particles of coal

Vitrinite = plant cell wall+cellulose

Liptinite = spores, pollen, resins, wax

Inertinite = oxidised cell walls etc.

 I. Accumulation of organic matters to form peat river

peat

II. Disruption of peat deposition due to sedimentaion of clastic materials during

flooding from nearby river
flooding
Clastic sediment
peat

III. New deposition of organic matters at post-flooding episode to form peat

above clastic sediment
peat
Coal splitting peat
Coal Formation
Sedimentary Environments
Peat may accumulate in a wide range of sedimentary environments such as
swamps, river-flood plains, lakes, deltas, and coastal areas.
It may also be formed in more isolated regions such as volcanic craters,
limestone sinkholes, and other localised depressions on impermeable soil or
bedrock surface.
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Coals are deposited over a narrow range of sedimentary

environments
in all cases the fresh, organic plant material needs to be buried
quickly and protected from oxidation
In order for the organic matter to be preserved, the plant
debris must accumulate in a local area of restricted oxygen
supply
Coal-forming environments are often called mires.
Mires can be either marine-connected termed paralic
environment, or freshwater-connected termed limnic
environment.
 Main coal environments

Main coal
depositional
environments

GA-CSIRO Coal Seam

Gas Short Course,
Bandung, Indonesia,
Source: www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/files/OGL98125.gif October 2009
PARALIC AND LIMNIC MIRES

Paralic mires are persistently low areas such as lagoons or

submarine inter-distributary depressions where terrestrial or
marine plant debris can accumulate, and where water
circulation is restricted resulting in low dissolved oxygen content.
Limnic mires are low-lying terrestrial areas such as lakes or
abandoned river channels where strictly terrestrial plant
material can accumulate.
In both kinds of mires, water chemistry and plant type will
influence the eventual coal type, maturational path, and
hydrocarbon generation.
Within each mire, coals themselves can be of two depositional
types: humic coals and sapropelic coals.
PARALIC AND LIMNIC MIRES

Paralic mires are persistently low areas such as lagoons or

submarine inter-distributary depressions where terrestrial or
marine plant debris can accumulate, and where water
circulation is restricted resulting in low dissolved oxygen content.
Limnic mires are low-lying terrestrial areas such as lakes or
abandoned river channels where strictly terrestrial plant
material can accumulate.
In both kinds of mires, water chemistry and plant type will
influence the eventual coal type, maturational path, and
hydrocarbon generation.
Within each mire, coals themselves can be of two depositional
types: humic coals and sapropelic coals.
HUMIC COALS

Humic coals are accumulations of heterogeneous

organic debris deposited in-situ, in a more or less
oxygen restricted environment.
They are the more common type of coal often seen to
have mixtures of organic matter from tree limbs to
leaves.
A contemporary example of a future humic coal is a
swamp that sees the quiet accumulation of broken
branches, dead leaves, grasses, aquatic weeds and
grasses that grow in and around a swamp.
SAPROPELIC COALS

Sapropelic coals are redeposited, winnowed accumulations of

organic debris that have been sorted by hydraulic action.
A modern example may be a portion of the swamp that mostly
receives wind-blown pollen and small leaves especially rich in
plant liquids that are easily transformed to hydrocarbons.
They are mostly minor stratigraphic components within major
coal sequences, but can be economically important in that they
will often source liquid hydrocarbons and may offer pathways
of extraordinary permeability.
Diskusi
Humic coals Terori Insitu
Sapropelic coals Teori Drift

Hubungan Antara ke empat teori tersebut?

mana yang paling baik kualitasnya?
Controls on Peat Formation

1. Substantial growth of vegetation with at least some

woody or fibrous components.
2. Sufficient standing water around the accumulated
vegetable material to exclude oxidation or bacterial
destruction of the organic components most critical
factor in peat accumulation student discussion.
3. The absence of inorganic sediment during peat
accumulation.
COALIFICATION

When the organic debris first begins to pile up it is

termed peat; the younger sediment rests on older
material, causing it sink ever deeper into the
sedimentary pile.
Layers of peat may be separated by inorganic
materials such as clay and sand deposited during
times of flood or other breaks in the accumulation of
peat.
As the peat accumulates, organic processes begin to
break the plant debris down, both physically and
chemically.
Classification of coal formation
 STUDENT DISCUSSION
Discuss the geologic situation in which the coal
rank may increase significantly how it may
work.
COAL MATURATION

Maturation is most often measured as vitrinite

reflectance.
Vitrinite reflectance is a measurement of how
reflective the coal is.
Vitrinite is a common coal grain or maceral that is
abundant in most coals
As vitrinite is subjected to maturation, its carbon
content increases, its volatile content decreases, and it
becomes harder and shinier.
Its reflectance increases as it matures.
COAL MATURATION gradual process characterized by stages

Range stages Carbon (%) Volatile Matter Vitrinite Reflectance (%)

(%)
Random Maximum

Wood debris 50 >65 - -

Peat 60 >60 0,20 0,20
Brown coal 71 52 0,40 0,42
Sub-bituminous 80 40 0,60 0,63
coal
High volatile 86 31 0,97 1,03
bituminous coal
Medium volatile 90 22 1,47 1,58
bituminous coal
Low volatile 91 14 1,85 1,97
bituminous coal
Semi anthracite 92 8 2,65 2,83
Anthracite 95 2 6,55 7,00
GAS GENERATION - INTRUDUCTION

As burial and maturation proceeds, organic

compounds give off water, CO2, methane, and other
gases.
Physically, the material loses porosity because of
compaction and maturational changes.
plant debris having over 75% porosity and hard coals
having 1% or less.
The reduction in porosity happens because of
compaction and deformation of coal grains or
macerals.
GAS GENERATION (continued...)

Natural gas methane is generated by two distinct

ways:
1. BIOGENIC PROCESSES
Microbes
Anoxic environment, low temperature & sulphur
Shallow
2. THERMOGENIC PROCESSES
Coalification: high temperature and pressures due to burial; thus
methane generation occurs
GAS GENERATION (continued...)

Biogenic process: microbes generate methane through a

fermentation process of the coal or reduction of CO2 into CH4.
Most of Indonesians CBM will be of biogenic origin. In this
case, gas is generated from immature coal (vitrinite reflectance
<0.55%).
Thermogenic process: gas is generated through purely burial-
temperature processes (i.e. maturation). Gas generation is at a
maturity level corresponding to the oil window (vitrinite
reflectance ~0.55%). It is the hydrogen-rich coal facies within
the coalbeds that would be expected to produce the most
hydrocarbons with burial.
Kalimantan Barito 101.6 Tcf
Kutai 80.4 Tcf
Sumatera South Sumatera 183.0 Tcf
Central Sumatera 52.5 Tcf
Others 35.8 Tcf
CBM Resources in several countries
(unit in Tcf)

China 1000
North America 800
Indonesia 453
Australia 350
India 300

Note: CBM has been produced in USA and Australia

CBM STORAGE
CBM is stored in coal upon the molecular structure of the coal
(micropores, cleats, etc)
Pore size:
<12 Angstroms micropores 40-70%
>300 Angstroms micropores 10-50%
HIGHER THE RANK, HIGHER THE % OF MICROPORES
Storage capacity:
increases with rank and pressure
decreases with temperature and moisture
1 gram of coal can have 10s to 100s of square metres of
surface area
CBM storage
CBM STORAGE (continued...)

Cleat spacing can change significantly vertically as well as

laterally as facies within the coal change.
In low rank coal, cleat spacing is relatively large (10-25 mm).
In higher rank coal, cleat spacing can be on the order of 1-5
mm; and thus it may have less of an effect on overall
permeability.
IT IS THE MATRIX PERMEABILITY THAT PROBABLY EFFECTS PERMEABILITY
THE MOST IN LOW RANK COAL.
Total permeability is measured in well using DSTs (drill steam tests) or IFOs
(injection fall-off tests)
CBM STORAGE (continued...)

Matrix permeability and maximum gas holding capacity in low

rank coal will be largely influenced by microporosity (NOT the
volume BUT the surface area of the micropores which is
important in determining the maximum gas holding capacity).
The maximum gas holding capacity of a coal bed is
determined by the amount of methane that can be adsorped
onto the coal surface area. If coal A has smaller and twice as
many micropores than coal B, then coal A will have a higher
holding capacity, simply because the surface area is greater.
A second factor affecting gas holding capacity is moisture
content the higher the moisture content in a coal bed, the
lower the maximum gas holding capacity.
CBM storage
FACTORS CONTROLLING CBM PRODUCTIVITY

Fracture permeability development.

Gas migration.
Coal maturation.
Coal distribution.
Geologic structures can induce natural fracturing,
hence increasing pathways.
CBM completion options.
Produced water management.
Cleat jointing in coal beds, particularly in
bituminous coals.
It is characterised by sets of parallel fractures, usually oriented
perpendicular to the bedding of the seam.
One set of fractures called the face cleat usually dominant
A second set known as the butt cleat normally present at approx
right angles to this set, but the fractures are relatively short, often
curved, an tend to terminate on the face cleat planes.
The spacing of cleat planes varies from <1 mm to around 30 cm.
The spacing of cleat planes affects the size of the coal particles
produced from a mine, and must be considered in the design of a
coal preparation plant, as well as in aspects of coal utilization
and marketing.
 Cleats within coal seam

BUTT CLEAT ( Macropores )

FACE CLEAT

BLOCK MATRIX CONSISTS OF MICROPORES

Geologic significance of cleats

Cleats provide space which can be filled with water and gas.
Cleat orientation commonly bears a close relationship to the
join pattern in the associated strata, and joints can be used, in
some areas at least, to predict the cleat pattern in underground
mines before coal extraction is commenced.
Face cleats are considered to be the result of extension
fracturing in a plane parallel to the maximum compressive
palaeostress of the region.
Butt cleats are unclear.
CLEAT (FRACTURE) DEVELOPMENT

Coal contains porosity but very little matrix permeability.

In order for fluids to be produced out of coal seams into a wellbore,
the coal must possess a system of secondary permeability such as
fractures.
Fractures allow water, natural gas, and other fluids to migrate from
matrix porosity toward the producing well.
Cleat is the term for the network of natural fractures that form in coal
seams as part of the maturation of coal.
Cleats form as the result of coal dehydration, local and regional
stresses, and unloading of overburden.
Cleats largely control the directional permeability of coals and,
therefore, are highly important for CBM exploitation through well
placement and spacing.
Coal bed methane reservoir
The reservoir characteristics of
coalbeds are considered very complex BUTT CLEAT ( Macropores )
compared to the conventional one. The
coalbed are naturally fractured reservoirs
that characterized by a dual-porosity
behavior. Coals are cleated (naturally fissured),

FACE CLEAT
soft and friable. They consist of brittle block,
which are separated by small fractures and
has a mineralogical composition formed by
mineral Ash, Fixed Carbon (FC), Volatile
Material (VM) and Moisture.
The fractured system is also called
cleated system and is formed by Face Cleats
and Butt Cleats. Majority of the coal gas is not
stored in the coals pore space. Gas is
adsorbed instead of compressed. The storage BLOCK MATRIX CONSISTS OF
mechanism is by adsorption of a MICROPORES
monomolecular layer of methane on the coal
surface.
 PORE STRUCTURE

Face and butt cleat system are commonly orthogonal or nearly

orthogonal to each other and essentially perpendicular to bedding
surface.

Cleat has been measured to vary between 1 and 50 cleats per

cm. The aperture of the unstressed cleat range between 0.01 and
0.3 mm, with majority less than 0.05 mm
 PORE STRUCTURE

Two types of cleat are present in coal: the face cleat and the butt
cleat. The face cleat is continuous throughout the seam, while the
butt cleat in many cases is discontinuous, ending at an intersection
with the face cleat. generall, the face and butt cleats intersect
each other at right angles.

The total effective porosity to water is usually less than 2%, while
the effective porosity to free gas in the same coal may be as high
as 10%. The discrepancy is due to the inaccessibility of the micro
pore system to water.
Typical Characteristics of COALBED

POROSITY ( OVERALL ) : 3 - 5 %

DIAMETER OF PORE : < 10 AO ( = 1 Nm)

AREA OF ROCK SURFACE MATRIK : 100 -

300 M2/GRAM
 Methane Gas is released from cleat surfaces,
and it moves to wellbore
BUTT CLEAT ( Macropores )
FACE CLEAT

BLOCK MATRIX CONSISTS OF

MICROPORES
DESORPTION IN Diffusion Through DARCY FLOW TO
Gas flow
PARTICLE
COAL mechanism in Coal
Primary Porosity BedWELLBORE
to wellbore
FICKS LAW OF DIFFUSION

well

Coalbed
 NETWORK MODEL OF CLEAT SYSTEM IN COAL BED
SIMILAR TO NATURALLY FRACTURED GAS RESERVOIR
 TUGAS

BUAT RINGKASAN MENGENAI GEOLOGICAL

INFLUENCE ON COALBED METHANE !

BUAT DI KERTAS DOUBLE FOLIO

DIKUMPUL MINGGU DEPAN..
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