Earth Materials and

Resources - Energy
Resources
Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

• describe how fossil fuels are formed;
• explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source
of energy (geothermal) for human use;
• explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing
water; and
• create individual models explaining how fossil fuels are formed,
and how
• geothermal and hydroelectric energy are harnessed for
human use.
Why is energy important?

Energy is important because it is the driving force behind

almost every process that sustains life, powers economies,
and enables technological advancement.
Types of Energy Sources

1. Non-renewable Sources
2. Renewable Sources
Non-renewable Sources

A non-renewable energy source is a type of energy that

comes from natural resources that are finite and cannot be
replenished within a human lifespan. Once these resources
are consumed, they are either gone forever or take millions
of years to regenerate.
 Non-renewable
Energy Sources

COAL OIL NATURAL GAS NUCLEAR

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar Wind Hydroelectric

Biomass Geothermal
Uses of Energy

Agricultural Transportation Residential

Commercial Industrial
Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as

anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The
age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is
typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650
million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of
carbon and include coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Other more commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels
include kerosene and propane.
Coal

Like oil and natural gas, coal is a fossil

fuel. It started forming over 350 million
years ago, through the transformation of
organic plant matter.
Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary

rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called
coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as
anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock
because of later exposure to elevated temperature and
pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with
variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen,
sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
 Coal formation: Occurs through
diagenesis and metamorphism
(also known as bituminization or
carbonification)

Coalification Initial stage: Begins in a swamp on

the edge of a sedimentary basin
Process (e.g., lagoon or lake).

Tectonic activity: Raises sea levels,

covering and killing vegetation.
 Sedimentation: Plant debris
accumulates, buried under layers of
mud and sand, protecting it from air
and slowing decomposition.

Coalification Vegetation regrowth: Occurs until

Process the next flooding.

Subsidence: The sedimentary basin

sinks under the weight of sediments.
 Heat and pressure: Rising
temperatures gradually
transform plant layers.

Coalification
Process

Coal stages: Cellulose turns

from peat → lignite (brown
coal) → sub-bituminous
coal → bituminous coal →
anthracite (highest carbon
content).
Geologic Times For the Formation of Coal

The most favorable conditions for the formation of coal

occurred 360 million to 290 million years ago, during the
Carboniferous (“coal-bearing”) Period. However, lesser
amounts continued to form in some parts of the Earth
during all subsequent periods, in particular the Permian (290
million to 250 million years ago), and throughout the
Mesozoic Era (250 million to 65 million years ago).
Geologic Times For the Formation of Coal

The accumulated plant matter buried during the Tertiary

Era — less than 65 million years ago — is generally less
mature. It is often in the form of lignite, which still contains a
high content of volatile matter (bitumen and decayed
wood) and has a lower carbon content. However, there is
also some higher rank coal from the Tertiary Era, coal that
matured early, heated by plate tectonics.
Geologic Times For the Formation of Coal

Examples of this include Paleocene coal (65 to 55 million

years ago), found in Columbia and Venezuela, and
Miocene coal (20 million years ago), found in Indonesia. In
Indonesia, where the geothermal gradient is very high,
anthracite lies close to the surface.
Geologic Times For the Formation of Coal

However, the deposits in the Moscow Basin have never

gone beyond the lignite stage as it is too cold. Finally,
recent accumulations (from 10,000 years ago to today) are
very rich in fibrous debris known as peat, in which the
shapes of branches and roots can still be discerned. This
material was not buried deep enough to contain elemental
carbon.
Different Types of Coal

There are
several Anthracite
different
types of coal. Bituminous Coal
They are
ranked
according to Sub-bituminous Coal
their carbon
and volatile
matter
Lignite
content.
Peat
Types of Coal - Anthracite

Carbon content: 86–98% pure carbon.

Volatile matter: 3–8%.

Properties: Anthracite has the highest carbon content of all coal types, making it a very dense and hard
coal. It burns with a short, blue flame and produces minimal smoke and soot, which makes it ideal for
residential heating. Due to its high energy content and efficiency, anthracite is considered a premium fuel.

Uses: It is mainly used for heating homes and commercial buildings, especially in areas where natural gas or
electricity is expensive. In some cases, it is used in industrial processes that require high heat.
Types of Coal – Bituminous Coal

Carbon content: 70–86%

Volatile matter: 31–46%

Properties: Bituminous coal is softer and more common than anthracite. It has a higher volatile matter
content, meaning it releases more gases when burned, which makes it ideal for generating high heat. It is
often used in industrial applications due to its lower cost compared to anthracite

Uses: Primarily used to produce coke, a carbon-rich material used in steelmaking. Coke serves as both a fuel
and a reducing agent in the production of iron and steel. Bituminous coal is also used for power generation
and industrial heating.
Types of Coal – Sub-bituminous Coal

Carbon content: 70–76%.

Volatile matter: 42–53%.

Properties: Sub-bituminous coal has a lower carbon content and higher moisture than bituminous coal,
resulting in a lower energy content. However, it is cleaner-burning and has a higher heating value than
lignite, making it suitable for industrial purposes.

Uses: It is primarily burned in industrial boilers to generate steam for electricity generation, as well as for
heating large buildings and facilities. Its lower sulfur content also makes it preferable in regions where
emissions control is important.
Types of Coal - Lignite

Carbon content: 65–70%.

Volatile matter: 53–63%.

Properties: Lignite, also known as brown coal, is the lowest grade of coal due to its relatively
low carbon content and high moisture level. As a result, it produces less heat and more
smoke when burned. However, lignite is relatively abundant and inexpensive to mine.

Uses: Primarily used in industrial boilers for generating electricity in power plants. Despite its
low efficiency, lignite remains widely used in areas where higher-quality coal is not readily
available.
 Types of Coal - Peat

Carbon content: Less than 60%

Volatile matter: Composed almost entirely of volatile matter, as it is made of partially decomposed
plant material.

Properties: Peat is not technically coal, as it is still in the early stages of carbonization. It is a soft, spongy
material with a high water content, and when dried, it becomes brittle and crumbly. It has a very low
energy content and produces a lot of smoke when burned.

Uses: Historically used throughout Europe for heating, particularly in the form of dried briquettes. Today,
it is still used in some regions like Ireland for home heating and horticultural purposes (as a soil
conditioner). However, peat's use as a fuel has diminished due to its low efficiency and environmental
concerns, as peatlands are important carbon sinks.
Petroleum (Oil and Gas)

Deep in the Earth, oil and natural gas are formed from
organic matter from dead plants and animals. These
hydrocarbons take millions of years to form under very
specific pressure and temperature conditions.
Petroleum (Oil and Gas)

When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in one

of two ways:
- It is eaten by predators, scavengers or bacteria.
- Through exposure to ambient air or oxygen-rich water, it
oxidizes. That means that the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus contained in the matter combine
with oxygen atoms present in the air. The organic matter
breaks down into water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrates, sulfates and phosphates that nourish new plants.
The Slow Formation of Source Rock

A tiny proportion of this organic matter — about 0.1% —

escapes this fate. Transported by water, it sometimes sinks
to the bottom of the sea or large continental lakes. It is
partly preserved in these poorly oxygenated environments,
well away from tidal currents. It mixes with inorganic matter,
such as clay particles and very fine sand, and with dead
marine plankton (microscopic organisms). This mixture is
transformed into dark, foul-smelling mud by anaerobic
bacteria.
The Slow Formation of Source Rock

Over time, this mud accumulates and hardens. Mud that contains at
least 1 to 2% organic matter may be transformed into source rock,
which eventually produces oil and gas deposits. This percentage may
seem low, but that is because one or more specific requirements are
necessary to enable the process to take place:
- A hot climate that is conducive to the growth of large quantities of
plankton.
- A location near the mouth of a major river carrying a lot of plant
debris.
- No nearby mountains that could limit the volume of inorganic
sediment within the rock.
Source Rock Subsidence

The weight of accumulating sediment very slowly pushes

the source rock further under the Earth's crust, by a few
meters to a few hundred meters every million years or so.
This gradual sinking is called subsidence and leads to the
formation of sedimentary basins.
Source Rock Subsidence

As it sinks below ground, the source rock is subjected to

increasingly high temperatures, the organic matter that
makes up the rock is crushed by the weight of the
accumulating sediments, and the pressure increases by 25
bar every 100 meters on average. At one kilometer
underground, the temperature is 50°C and pressure is 250
bar.
Source Rock Subsidence

Under these physical conditions, the nitrogen, sulfur and

phosphorus atoms are gradually converted into kerogen,
an intermediate material made up of water, carbon
dioxide, carbon and hydrogen, which is then transformed
into oil or gas.
How Oils and Gas Forms

Hydrocarbon Release: At 2,000 meters depth and 100°C, kerogen

begins to release hydrocarbons.

Oil Formation: Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, kerogen turns into oil—
this is called the oil window.

Gas Formation: At 3,800 to 5,000 meters, liquid hydrocarbons peak and

become lighter, eventually turning into methane gas in the gas window.
How Oils and Gas Forms

Depth Limit: Below 8 to 10 kilometers, hydrocarbons are destroyed due

to high temperatures.

Type of Source Rock: Organic debris of animal origin produces more oil;
plant debris generates more gas.

Formation Time: With 50 meters of sedimentation per million years, it

takes 60 million years for dead animals to become liquid hydrocarbons,
making oil a non-renewable resource.
How Oils and Gas Migrate

Starting out from the source rock where they are formed,
hydrocarbon molecules, which are light, set off on an
upward journey to the surface. They accumulate in porous
rock and are blocked by impermeable rock, thereby
creating oil and gas deposits.
The Slow Rise to the Surface of Oil and
Gas
In the source rock, hydrocarbons are present in greater
volumes under higher pressures than the initial kerogen.
Little by little, they are expelled into the water-containing
rocky layers located adjacent to the source rock. Because
hydrocarbons are lighter than water, gas and oil rise
upward by circulating between the mineral grains of the
rock. This slow, constant movement away from the source
rock is called migration.
The Slow Rise to the Surface of Oil and
Gas
Migration is a complicated process. The rate depends on the
permeability of the rocks they cross and the size of the
molecules: gas molecules rise more quickly than oil molecules,
because they are smaller and more mobile. Some hydrocarbon
molecules are prevented from moving upward, either because
they dissolve in the water contained in the rock they encounter
(this affects gas much more often than oil) or because they
adhere to the grains that make up the rock. This phenomenon is
known as migration loss. These losses can be significant,
especially if the oil and gas have a long way to travel. This is why
some source rock hydrocarbons will never be suitable for
development.
The Formation of Deposits in Reservoir
Rock, Under Cap Rock
• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock.
Hydrocarbon molecules may accumulate in large
quantities in this porous, permeable rock.
• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in
seas, oceans, lakes or lagoons. The appearance of the
rock is different depending on the size of these particles:
very large grains form rock consisting of gravel, small
grains bond together to form sand, and thesmallest grains
of all form clay or mud.
The Formation of Deposits in Reservoir
Rock, Under Cap Rock
• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its
porosity. The higher the percentage of space within the rock,
the more porous the rock, which can contain large quantities of
fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an example of a porous
rock. These spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their
connectivity is known as permeability, which is what allows fluids
to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is both permeable and
porous. Oil exploration engineers look for reservoir rocks — also
known as reservoirs — that combine good porosity (large
quantities of hydrocarbons) and good permeability (which
makes it easy to extract these hydrocarbons because they flow
unimpeded inside the rock).
The Formation of Deposits in Reservoir
Rock, Under Cap Rock
• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the
reservoir rock is capped by a layer of impermeable rock
that prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the
surface and forms a closed space that prevents the oil or
gas from rising laterally. This cap rock forms a barrier and
traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt
(evaporite) layers form the best cap rock, any rock that is
sufficiently impermeable — such as highly compact
carbonates — can serve as a cap rock
Absence of Cap Rock

• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising, they will
move through the reservoir rock and cannot accumulate.
• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its migration is
exposed to bacteria and ambient air. This triggers complex
chemical reactions that convert them into water and carbon
dioxide. However, when significant quantities of hydrocarbons arrive
at the surface more quickly than the final degradation process, the
heaviest molecules may remain in the ground in the form of viscous,
almost solid bitumen, buried at depths of a few meters. But these
bitumen deposits will quickly disappear when the hydrocarbons stop
arriving at the surface to replenish them.
From Traps to Commercial Deposits

• Commercial oil and gas deposits occupy closed spaces

created by deformations in geological layers. These
spaces, known as traps, must be large enough to make
developing the deposit economically viable. Reservoir
rock, which is both porous and permeable, can hold a
given quantity of hydrocarbons. Cap rock, which seals
these reservoirs, stops the hydrocarbons from migrating
upwards to the surface.
• But before a deposit can be formed, these hydrocarbons
must also be sealed in a closed space called a trap.
About Oils and Gas Traps

There are two main types of trap

1. Structural Traps
• are formed by changes in geological layers caused by the
movement of tectonic plates. Reservoir rock is sometimes
deformed until it forms a completely sealed space. These
anticlinal traps are dome-shaped and the most common type of
structural trap.
About Oils and Gas Traps

There are two main types of trap

2. Stratigraphic Traps
• are made up of sedimentary layers that have not undergone
tectonic deformation. In this case, a cap rock completely seals
off the reservoir rock. For example, salt domes can act as cap
rocks in this type of trap.
About Oils and Gas Traps

Hydrocarbon Migration: Traps contain hydrocarbons and

residual water. Hydrocarbons, being lighter, migrate above the
water table

Trap Contents:
• Oil with dissolved gas.
• Gas with light liquid hydrocarbons (condensate).
• Both oil and gas: Gas accumulates above the oil in the trap.
About Oils and Gas Traps

Product Development:
• Dissolved gas is converted into liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG) for fuel.
• Condensate is refined into naphtha (used in
petrochemicals) or kerosene (used in aviation).
Conserving Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbon Risk: Even when trapped, hydrocarbons can

deteriorate, preventing a commercial deposit.
• Shallow Traps (<1,000 meters): Meteoric water (from
precipitation) can infiltrate, introducing bacteria and
oxygen, which trigger reactions that separate
hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide. Bacteria first
attack light and medium hydrocarbons, degrading the oil
into viscous, solid forms that are harder to extract.
Conserving Hydrocarbons

• Deep Traps (>1,000 meters): At temperatures above 50°C,

bacteria cannot survive, preventing degradation.
However, tectonic activity can fracture the rock, breaking
the seal and allowing hydrocarbons to leak or even
destroy the trap completely.
Fossil Fuel Power Generation

• Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves

three energy conversions, extracting thermal energy from
the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal
energy of the steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and
using a rotary generator to convert the turbine's
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Geothermal Energy

• As you descend deeper into the Earth's crust,

underground rock and water become hotter. This heat
can be recovered using different geothermal
technologies depending on the temperature. But the heat
resources in geothermal reservoirs are not inexhaustible.
Thermal Gradient

• The adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words

geo (earth) and thermos (heat). It covers all techniques
used to recover the heat that is naturally present in the
Earth’s subsurface, particularly in aquifers, the rock
reservoirs that contain groundwater. About half this
thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the residual heat
produced when the planet was formed 4.5 billion years
ago and about half from natural radioactivity.
Thermal Gradient

• The temperature of geothermal water increases with

depth, depending on the thermal gradient — the
average rate at which the temperature rises with depth —
of the region where it is found. The average value of the
gradient worldwide is 3°C per 100 meters of depth, but it
varies between 1°C and 10°C per 100 meters depending
on the physical conditions and geology of the region.
 Different Types of Thermal Energy
Geothermal technologies differ with the temperature of geothermal water,
which determines what can be done with it:
• At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for geothermal
heating. This is called low-temperature geothermal energy (see Close-Up –
"Low-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Heating”).
• At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid form. It transfers
its heat to another fluid, which vaporizes at low temperature and drives a
turbine to generate power. This is called medium-temperature geothermal
energy (see Close-up – "High- Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power”).
• At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it reaches
the Earth’s surface. It drives turbines to generate power. This is called high-
temperature geothermal energy.
The different temperature ranges are general, and practices may vary
according to the economic conditions of the particular location.
Availability of Geothermal Resources

This heat varies in different areas. The average geothermal heat

flow — the energy available for any given surface area and
period — on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per square
meter per year, or 3,500 times less than the solar energy flow
received in a single year by the same surface area. This is why
priority is given to using heat resources in those areas that are
most likely to provide significant amounts of energy. These
“geothermal reservoirs” are found in all the Earth’s sedimentary
basins, but high-temperature geothermal energy is most likely to
be found near volcanoes. In volcanic areas, geothermal heat
flow can reach 1 watt per square meter.
 Availability of Geothermal Resources
Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use, some faster than
others. Their replenishment capacity depends on:
• Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly radioactivity and
residual heat.
• Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-
temperature applications using heat pumps. Ensuring that these
reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for geothermal heat
pumps: external factors, such as low winter temperatures, cool the
subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be harnessed.
• The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat
sources located away from the reservoir before returning to the
reservoir.
 Availability of Geothermal Resources
Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to use a
reservoir in a sustainable manner. This involves capping the
amount of heat used and putting a time limit on the operation of
the site.
In addition, the availability of geothermal energy is
geographically limited. Significant losses occur when heat is
transported over long distances. This can cause problems,
because production sites cannot always be located close
enough to the place of consumption to meet energy needs.
How is heat from inside the earth tapped
as a source of energy for human use?
• Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used
directly to supply heat or can be converted to
mechanical or electrical energy.
High-Temperature Geothermal Energy:
Power
• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy
harnesses extremely hot water and steam from beneath
the Earth to generate electricity in dedicated power
plants.
Medium-Temperature Geothermal Power
Plants
• Geothermal water at temperatures of 90 to 160°C can be
used in liquid form to generate power; this is called
medium-temperature geothermal energy.
• This technology involves power plants that harness
groundwater via geothermal wells. This type of power
plant is built near aquifers located at depths of 2,000 to
4,000 meters. In volcanic areas (“hotspots”), where the
subsurface holds more heat, the water used by the power
plants is sometimes found closer to the surface, at depths
of less than 1,000 meters.
Medium-Temperature Geothermal Power
Plants
• In these plants, water that has been pressurized to stop it
boiling circulates through a heat exchanger. This
equipment contains pipes filled with geothermal water
that are in contact with pipes filled with another fluid,
generally a hydrocarbon. When it comes into contact
with the water-filled pipes, the fluid heats up, boils and
vaporizes. The steam obtained drives a turbine that
generates power. In the process, the steam cools,
returning to its liquid state before being reused in another
production cycle.