Coalbed Methane (CBM) : Prepared by Dr. Ajay Suri For Course PEE 18102

Coalbed Methane (CBM)
Prepared by Dr. Ajay Suri

For Course PEE 18102
1
CBM Course
 Coal & CBM scenario – Global and India
 Formation and properties of CBM –

Generation of gas, its properties, reserve
estimation and coal as a reservoir rock
 Thermodynamics of CBM – isotherm
 Drilling and production systems of CBM

wells
2
Course (cont.)
 Artificial lift for CBM wells
 Hydro-fracturing of coal seams
 Treating and disposal of produced waters
 Testing of CBM wells
 US CBM History & Case Study

3
CBM Material
 Class PPT
 Petroleum Engineering Handbook – Vol. VI
– Emerging and Peripheral
Technologieshttp://petrowiki.org/PEH:Coalbed_Methane#Intr
oduction
 http://www.dghindia.org/index.php/page?pageId=63&name=INDIAN%
20HYDROCARBON%20SCENARIO%20IN%20LAST%205%20YEAR
S
 Fundamental of CBM Reservoir

Engineering by Seidle 4
What is Coal
 Chemically complex, combustible solid

consisting of more than 50% by wt. and
70% by vol. of organic matter from
altered plant remains
 Described by
◦ Composition (organic matter type)
◦ Purity/Grade (amt. of organic matter)
◦ Maturity/Rank
5
Typical Bituminous Coal Structure
6
Type of Coal
 Based on appearance (bright/dull) and

composition (humic/sapropelic)
 Usually relation between appearance and
type of organic constituents
 Organic constituents grouped into
Macerals – analogous to minerals in rocks
 3 Maceral groups
◦ Vitrinite
◦ Liptinite or Exinites
◦ Inertinite
7
Maceral Groups in Coal
 Vitrinite (Type III) – Major amt.

◦ Bright bands in hand samples
◦ Woody and cellulose portion of plants
 Inertinite (Type IV) – Reasonable amt.
◦ Dull black lustre
◦ Composed of oxidized organic matter
 Liptinite/Exinite (Type II, I) – Minor amt.
◦ Waxy texture
◦ Product of spores, resins, algae, planktons
8
Type of Coals from Different Origins/Macerals
9
Coal Formation Environment
http://geology.com/articles/coal-through-a-microscope.shtml 10
Maceral or Kerogen Type
https://oilweb.oilindia.in/R&D/igNet/Entry/MainManual/Interpretation/visual.htm 11
12
Hand Specimen of Bright Banded Coal
Not uniformly black
(shades of black with
different lusters)
Bright bands are

preserved woody
material
Dull bands are

minerals, degraded
woody material and
charcoal (burnt
woody mat.)
http://geology.com/articles/coal-through-a-microscope.shtml
13
Microscopic View:
Humic Coal
Thin section (~ 30 mm) of 2
mm wide humic (banded) coal
Well preserved woody material
Thick red bands (represents a

twig or other preserved piece
of woody material)
Only minor amounts of mineral

matter and degraded plant
materials (charcoal) in black
http://geology.com/articles/coal-through-a-microscope.shtml
14
Microscopic View: Cannel (Candle) Coal
4 mm wide thin section
Large amts. of spores

(brilliant yellow), resins, or
algal materials
Resistant to decay
If found with charcoal and

mineral matter, it suggests
swamp conditions where the
woody material decayed
away and the more resistant
materials accumulated
Microscopic View: Boghead Coal
4 mm wide thin
section
Preserved algal debris

(yellow-orange
particles)
Might accumulate on
the fringe of a swamp
with lack of wood and
other coal forming
plant material
Grade (Purity) of Coal
 Based on wt% of organic material from

chemical analysis
 Impure coals are ash/bony (mineral) rich
 One way of grading is using Heat Value
Useful Heat Value (UHV) (Kcal/Kg) UHV= Corresponding Ash% + Moisture
Grade
8900-138(A+M) % at (60% RH & 40OC)
A Exceeding 6200 Not exceeding 19.5

B Exceeding 5600 but not exceeding 6200 19.6 to 23.8
C Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600 23.9 to 28.6
D Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940 28.7 to 34.0
E Exceeding 3360 but not exceeding 4200 34.1 to 40.0
F Exceeding 2400 but not exceeding 3360 40.1 to 47.0
G Exceeding 1300 but not exceeding 2400 47.1 to 55.0
Ministry of Coal; https://coal.nic.in/content/coal-grades 17

18
Continued
19
Continued
20
Rank (Maturity) of Coal
 Compositional maturity attained during
coalification
 Maturity increases with increase in temp. and
pressure with deeper burial
 Mature coals form at depths > 1000’s m and
typically requires millions of years
◦ Bituminous
◦ Antharcite
 Deeper burial leads to higher carbon content and
higher reflected light (vitrinite reflectance)
 Most common way to measure rank is to
measure reflectance of vitrinite remains
21
Origin of CBM Reservoirs (Description)
 Origin of coal is accumulated organic

matter in swamps and marshes commonly
associated with fluvial (river) systems,
deltas and marine shorelines
 Matter that quickly submerges below
water table w/o oxidation
 Basin subsidence and water table rising
rates are faster than accumulation rate
 Avg. rate of accumulation ~ 1 mm/yr
 Matter compacts by a factor of 7-10
22
Peat Formation
 Organic matter first transforms into peat

(>75% moisture) with burial
 Compaction and expulsion of interstitial
water and biochemical reactions
transform organic matter into humic
substances (precursors of macerals)
 Reactions also generate significant
biogenic methane, often referred to as
swamp gas
23
Lignite Formation
 Continued compaction and dehydration

transforms peat into a low-quality coal
called Lignite (30-40% water)
24
Subbituminous Formation
 With deeper burial, temp. increase and

geochemical processes dominate physical
processes
 Expulsion of H2O, CO, CO2, H2S and NH3
 Structure enriches in C and H
 At t >104.4 oC, C-C bonds begin to
break, generating gas and liquid HC
trapping in the coal
25
High-Volatile Bituminous Formation
 With deeper burial, HC are cracked into

thermogenic methane
 Gas generation rate is more than the
storage rate
 H/C ratio decreases from 0.75 to 0.25 as
coal matures from high-volatile
bituminous to anthracite
26
Low-Volatile Bituminous Formation
 Generation and expulsion of HC changes

coal structure and composition
 Moisture content reduces to few %
 Microporosity increases
 Bulk density reduces from 1.5 g/cc to
<1.3 g/cc
 Coal strength decreases creating cleats
27
Anthracite Formation
 At t > 150 deg. C, anthracite is formed (>

92% carbon)
 Methane generation and expulsion
decreases
 Bulk density increases from 1.3 g/cc to
1.8 g/cc
 Adsorbed methane content is still high
but permeability is low due to cleat
annealing (heat treatment)
28
Graphite
 Remaining volatiles driven off

 Carbon structure collapses to a denser
coal with very high carbon content similar
to graphite
29
Diamond Structure
All carbons have covalent bonds hence stronger than

graphite and since no free electron available can not
conduct electricity
30
Source: Dr. Avinash Chandra Slides 31
Proximate Analysis of Coal
To meet coal standards, various tests from ASTM, ISO, and AS can be
conducted for each of these:
 Moisture (Water)
 Volatile Matter (VM)
 Ash (Minerals)
 Fixed Carbon (FC) - Solid residue after volatile
matter, moisture & ash removed, coal part
 Sulphur
 Calorific Value
Note Carbon sublimes (solid to gas) at temp. > 5000 deg. C 32

Proximate
Analytical Bases
for Coal
From “Coal and

Coalbed Gas
Fuelling the
Future” Romeo
M. Flores
33
Proximate Analysis (cont.)
 Higher rank coal yields higher fixed

carbon (combustible part) and lower
moisture and ash
 Source of ash/minerals
◦ Sediments
◦ Precipitated minerals from groundwater
34
Energy Equivalence
1 TCE (ton of coal energy equivalence) = 0.7 TOE

(0.7 ton of oil energy) = 890 m3 of NG.
1 TCE = 29.39 gigajoules, 27.78 million Btu, or 8.14

megawatt hours.
Tonne (official) or Metric tonne in SI units = 1000 kg

Ton (in US language) = 1 short ton = 2000 lbs
I short ton = 2000 pounds
35
36
37
38
Reserve vs. Resource. Broadly defined the coal resource is
how much coal is actually in the ground. ... However the coal
reserves of any particular place are defined as the amount of
measured resource coal that could be expected to be
economically mineable under the current economical and
technological conditions
39
40
India has 0.3 Trillion
Tonnes of resource
(MoCoal, 2016)
Total World Coal Reserves ~ 17-30 Trillion tons 41

Coal Resource (Top Countries)
Approximate
1. Russia (4 Trillion Tonnes)
2. USA (2 TT)
3. China (2 TT)
4. Australia (0.5 TT)
5. India, Germany, Botswana (0.3 TT)
6. Great Britain and South Africa (0.2 TT)
Total World: 17-30 TT
42
With India’s current rate of production, our current resource should end by =
resource / rate of production = 300 billion tonnes / 0.7 billion tonnes = 428 years
With world’s current rate of coal consumption, no. of coal resource years =
25000 billion tons / (8 billion/yr) ~ 3000 years
43
China’s
consuming coal
at the highest
rate
44
World Energy
Annual Report
2018
45
World Energy
Annual Report
2018
46
World Energy
Annual Report
2018
47
World Energy
Annual Report
2018
48
INDIA’S
https://valueofdissent.wordpress.com/2012/06/03/indian-coal-sector-need-for-speed/49
World’s Energy
Consumption
IEA
1 quad = 1015 BTU

50
1 BTU = 1055 Joules
World’s Energy
Consumption Projected
2040
IEA
51
CBM World Scenario
 CBM resource of World around 9000 TCF

 Major world producers are
◦ US, 7.5% U.S. gas production is CBM
◦ Russia
◦ China
◦ Australia
◦ Canada
◦ India
52
CBM World Resource (TCF)
CBM reserves (in TCF). Data from Al-Jubori et al.

“Coalbed Methane: Clean Energy for the World, “Oilfield Review Summer 21,
No. 2, 4 (2009)
53
CBM – Russia (2960 TCF)
55
30.54 TCM = 1080 TCF
56
CBM - US
 CBM Production in 2011 – 1.76 TCF
(India’s total natural gas consumption)
 7.3 % of US Dry Gas Production
 Mostly from Rocky Mountain states of
Colorado, Wyoming and New Mexico
 Prolific basins
◦ Powder River
◦ Uinta
◦ Black Warrior
◦ San Juan
57
CBM basin map courtesy of U.S. Energy Information Administration (2007)
58
CBM basin map courtesy of U.S. Energy Information Administration (2007)
59
Australia
6 States, 2 Territories
60
https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/australias
-lng-sector-comes-under-strain 61
https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parli
amentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library
/pubs/BN/2011-2012/CoalSeamGas
62
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.10.007
1Peta J=10^15 J
1scf ~ 1MMJoules
1PJ~10^9 scf
63
CBM - Australia
 Total resource estimate 1037 TCF
 Fields in Queensland and New South Wales
◦ Bowen Basin
◦ Surat Basin
◦ Sydney Basin
 Commericial production started in 1996 -
Queensland
 CBM accounts for 10% of total gas
production of Australia
 Demonstrated Reserves of 33 TCF as of
2014
64
Canada
10 Provinces
65
Western Canadian Sedimentary basin
66
Western Canadian Sedimentary basin
https://alchetron.com/Western-Canadian-Sedimentary-Basin
67
CBM - Canada
 Total resource of 699 TCF
 British Columbia is estimated to have 90
TCF (Wiki, 2017)
 Alberta has commercial CBM wells and
170 TCF of recoverable reserves
 Bacterial actions is ongoing so debate is
there if CBM should be counted as a
renewable source - Western Canadian
Sedimentary basin
 3rd largest producer of NG (after Rus, US)
68
CBM - Canada
 Canadian conv. gas reserves are declining
 CBM wells in Alberta doubled in 2005 to
7764 producing 0.2 TCF/yr
 95% wells completed in Upper
Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon & Belly
River formations, typical depths of 300 –
2,400 ft
 4% wells in Lower Cretaceous Mannville
formation at depths 2,300-4,300 ft
69
70
71
Government awards Petroleum
Exploration and Development
Licences (PEDLs)
13th round in 2007, over 100 wells

were planned
20 applications were specifically

for coalbed methane wells
2-50 cbm wells will be developed
Sheet E11.
Fracking and Coalbed Methane
Unconventional gas in the UK
Version 1, October 2011.
Produced by the Free Range

Energy Beyond Oil Project
72
CBM - UK
 Estimated reserves -102 TCF
 Mostly untested
 Assesment began in 2008 – 55 onshore
exploration licenses issued – 7000 km2
 IGas Energy – first commercial CBM
extraction from mine venting
 As of 2012 – only IGas CBM wells at Doe
Green generating electricity commercially
73
CBM - Kazakhstan
 Expects large CBM sector development
 32 TCF
74
Kazakhstan
75
Kazakhstan
14 Regions
76
77
World's Biggest 25 Oil Companies
Producing in Million Barrels Per Day
Source: Forbes.com (2017)
14
12
10
8
6
4
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India’s daily oil production < 1 Million bpd (< 25th largest oil company Petronas)
India’s daily oil consumption ~ 4.2 Million bpd (>70% imported)
World’s daily oil consumption ~ 95 Million bpd
78
China & India per capita energy consumption is on the rise while US,
European Union are stable but way higher than India (more than 20 times)
US: 306 GJ/yr = 50 BOE/yr = 21.8 liters/day
India ~ 10 GJ/yr = 1.6 BOE/yr < 1 liter/day
https://valueofdissent.wordpress.com/2012/06/03/indian-coal-sector-need-for-speed/
79
Natural Gas Production – Worldwide
US produces highest amt. of natural gas in the world = 750 bcm/yr (26.5 TCF/yr)
India produces around 28 bcm/yr (0.99 TCF/yr)
World production of NG is 3600 bcm/yr (127 TCF/yr) 80
Natural Gas Consumption – Worldwide
US, Russia, China consumes the most NG, while India consumes ~ 50 bcm/yr
(1.77 TCF/yr), but it is on the rise as we are importing more
https://yearbook.enerdata.net/natural-gas/gas-consumption-data.html
81
INDIA’s Conventional Gas and CBM (2010)
92 TCF Total CBM Resource Estimate
Source: Dr. Avinash Chandra Slides

82
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
CBM India
Source: DGH, 2017 & Internet
 Estimated CBM resource of India ~ 95 Tcf
 Allocated reserves ~ 62.4 Tcf Note these are

up to year 2017
 Established reserves ~ 9.9 Tcf
 Recoverable reserves ~ 4 Tcf
 Total production rates ~ (2 MMscm/D) from

Essar, RIL and GEECL
83
84
Source: DGH 85
Source: DGH 86
INDIA’s
87
INDIA’s
1 SCM =
35.3 SCF

89
Important
ones
90
G
E
O
L
O
G
I
C
T
I
M
E
S
C
A
L
E
92
Sohagpur

CBM Historical Production-India
 2007 GEECL first company to start
producing CBM from 23 wells
 First CBM station in Asansol, Rs. 30/kg of
CNG
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
Shahdol-Phulpur
pipeline > 300 km
Expected current
gas rate = 0.4
MMSCMD
Peak envisaged ~
2.5-3 MMSCMD
Drilled > 200

wells
Plan to drill 600-

800 wells
Source: The Economic Times Online 104

Source: The Economic Times Online 105
The Economic Times Online 106
Livemint.com - Epaper 107
Cont.
Livemint.com - Epaper 108

110
Source: DGH online (2017) 111
Comparison with Conventional Gas Reservoirs
 Coal seams are source, trap and reservoir for

CBM
 Other differences
◦ Reservoir properties – cleats, microporosity and
low permeability
◦ Storage mechanism – large surface area due to
microporosity, 2-3 times more gas at same
pressure
◦ Flow mechanism (Water pressure bounds the gas
to coal and produces first on depressurization)
◦ Production profiles (Gas rate is low first and then
increases)
113
Comparison Review with Conventional Gas Reservoirs
114
115
CBM Gas Properties (Wiki, 2017)
 Typically CH4 > 90%, CO2, N2, Sweet (very
little H2S), C2H6, H2, and little
butane/condensates
 Coal has greater affinity for CO2 and C2H6
than CH4
 Coal desorption and sorption isotherms can
quantify amt. of each gas
 Adsorbed on coal surfaces as near liquid
state, free gas may be in the fractures/cleats
 1cc/g = 32.07 scf/(short ton = 2000 lbs)
116
Environmental Impacts (Wiki, 2017)
 Methane causes 72 times more global
warming than CO2 per mass basis
 However better than coal in producing
electricity as it has less than ½ of global
warming than coal
 In US 10% of total methane emissions are
from coal mining
117
CBM Infrastructure (Wiki, 2017)
 Network of roads
 Pipelines
 Compressor stations
 With time wells need to be spaced more

closely to extract remaining methane
118
Produced Water (Wiki, 2017)
 Salts
 Naturally present chemicals
 Heavy metals
 Radionuclides
 Many regions RO plant is used for water

treatment and usage for irrigation,
livestock, urban and industrial use or dust
suppression
119
Depths for CBM
 Depths > 2-3 km (25-30 oC / km) relate to

the temperatures of 100 oC needed for gas
generation
 Exceptions are coals transformed by local
heat sources such as igneous intrusions
 These deeper coals must be uplifted for
commercial exploitations
 Depths < few hundred meters, sorbed gas is
low
 Depths > 1200 m, k is low for economic
rates
120
Gas Content
 Gas content varies by

◦ Coal rank
◦ Burial and uplift history
◦ Addition of migrated bio-/thermo-genic gases
 Both Vitrinite and Liptinite-rich coals
generate large qts. of HC
 Higher gas content is in higher ranked coals,
highest in anthracite
 Bituminous are primary target for CBM
exploration (ex. San Juan and Black Warrior
basins)
121
Gas Content in Lower Ranked Coals
 Lower grade coals (high-volatile B in

Uinta basin in Utah and subbituminous in
Powder-river basin of Wyoming) were
developed due to migrated bio-/thermo-
genic gas.
 Powder-river basin coals (lower ranked)
are very thick, laterally extensive and
close to surface, so economical
122
Gas Type and Dynamics
 Most CBM is generated on burial

(thermogenic) and by late-stage bacteria
from groundwater converting longer-
chain HC to methane (biogenic)
 Groundwater can also reduce gas content
by dissolving gas from coal
 Ex. Ferron coals in Uinta basin – ground
water entered the coal from faults and
expelled gas updip to the coal outcrop
123
Gas Content Reduction
 Gas content can decrease due to uplift

and reburial of coal seams
 Ex. Hedong basin of China – uplift caused
lower pressure in the coal seams leading
to loss of gas
 Later deposition and reburial of coal seam
took place
124
Gas Storage Capacity
Langmuir Sorption Isotherm
p
Vg =VL
pL + p
Vg = volume of adsorbed gas, scf/ton
VL = dry, ash-free Langmuir volume (maximum volume of gas that
can be stored), scf/ton
p = pressure in the fracture system, psia
pL = Langmuir pressure (pressure at which the gas storage is ½ of
Langmuir Volume), psia
Cm = matrix gas concentration, scf/ft3

rB= bulk density, g/cm3
1 scf/ton = 0.031 cc/g or 1 cc/g = 32.07 scf/ton
125
Undersaturated
CBM Reservoir
Due to Coal
Uplift
 Typically Vactual < Vg, undersaturated coals

 This is due to temp. reduction during upliftment
that leads to higher gas capacity
 Once the coals are uplifted with no more gas
generation (above the HC window), coal
becomes undersaturated
126
127
128
129
130
Undersaturated
CBM Reservoir
 Uplifted coal if still saturated is due to

◦ Migrated thermogenic gas from deeper basin
◦ Further biogenic gas created by breakdown of
longer-chain HC in the coal by bacteria from
groundwater
131
Undersaturated
CBM Reservoir
No
production
during this
pr. reduction
 Gas will produce from saturated coals

with reduction in pressure
 Rates will ramp up to a peak over several
years and then decline.
 For undersaturated coals, gas will not
produce until pr. <= saturation pr.
132
Gas Content from Logs (Empirical)
133
Gas Storage Effects on Production
 Composition, rank, moisture content may

vary greatly with a CBM reservoir
 Hence assessment of isotherm from each
major coal seam is obtained to
◦ Determine saturation state, and
◦ Recovery factor
 Numerical simulations can be used to
estimate the impact of initial saturation
conditions on production
134
Higher Adsorption of CO2 than Methane on Coal
135
Adsorption of CO2 and CH4 in Powder River Basin’s Sub Bituminous Coals (Wyoming)
136
Higher Adsorption of Ethane than Methane on Coal
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=adsorption+of+co2+ethane+and+methane+on+coal&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjs7p_54
dHYAhVJO48KHWVWC4wQ_AUICygC&biw=1280&bih=657#imgrc=v25RD5eB_nOGkM:
137
Multi-component Adsorption
http://www.fekete.com/SAN/WebHelp/FeketeHarmony/Harmony_WebHelp/Content/HTML_Fil
es/Reference_Material/General_Concepts/Langmuir_Isotherm.htm 138
Multi-component Adsorption
http://www.fekete.com/SAN/WebHelp/FeketeHarmony/Harmony_WebHelp/Content/HTML_Fil
es/Reference_Material/General_Concepts/Langmuir_Isotherm.htm 139
CBM Fluid Dynamics
 Fluid movement is controlled by

◦ Desorption of gas from individual coal grains
◦ Diffusion (conc. grad.) in the coal matrix
◦ Darcy flow (pr. grad.) in the fracture/cleats
 Most CBM cleat systems are filled with
water initially, with or w/o some free gas
 Res. Pr. is decreased by producing water
 Gas desorbs from individual coal grains
into the pores (micro, meso and macro)
140
CBM Fluid Dynamics (cont.)
 Gas diffuses from the micro-pores

towards the cleats due to concentration
grad. across matrix micro-pores
 Gas saturation increases in the cleats
 When gas saturation > a critical value, it
flows towards the wellbore
 Relative permeability to gas increases
with time
141
142
Note CO2 prefers to adsorb on coal more than methane but
N2 prefers to adsorb less than methane
Desorption
from grain
surface, then
diffusion in the
matrix
Darcy’s law
in cleats
143
144
Fick’s Law for Gas Diffusion from Coal Matrix
145
Darcy’s Law for Gas Flow in Cleats
146
147
Coal Cleats
 Two orthogonal fracture sets (face and butt

cleats), also perpendicular to bedding plane
Horizontal Bedding plane
148
Coal Cleats (cont.)
 Local stresses control cleat development and
behavior
 Face cleats often parallel to faults and folds axes
s1>s2>s3
s1 = max. prinicipal stress
s1
149
Coal Cleats (cont.)
 Also believed to form by
◦ Shrinkage caused by moisture loss and
◦ Folding of brittle coal beds
s1>s2>s3
s1 = max. prinicipal stress s1
150
Approx. Spacing and Aperture of Cleats
 In-situ cleat apertures vary between 0.1 mm

to 0.1 mm, filled with calcite, gypsum or
pyrite
 More closely spaced in vitrain-rich and thin
beds
151
Approx. Spacing and Aperture of Cleats
 Poor cleating in high ash (>45%) and high

inertinite (>40%)
 Shear-fractures dipping 45-60 deg. to
bedding are common
◦ More widely spaced than cleats but
enhance perm
152
153
Coal Anisotropic Permeability
Early
ky Interference
and larger DP
View from Top

kx
Continuous with
higher permeability in
its direction
Discontinuous, with lower perm in its 154

Coal Compression
Fluid pressure
reduced due to
sv (Overburden stress) production, p < pi
Fluid pressure, pi
sh
(Horizontal
stress)
Cleat Permeabilities are Decreased

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Coal Matrix Shrinkage
Gas pressure in the matrix reduces
with desorption leading to matrix
shrinkage as well
Cleat Permeabilities are Increased

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Cleat Permeability during Production
 Lab tests and field indicate cleat perm to

decrease during initial production because
of coal swelling
 Coals shrinks as gas desorbs increasing
cleat perms
 Relative perm to gas increases with
increase in gas saturations in cleats as
compared to water
157
Appraisal and Development Strategy
 Collect and interpret data early in life of a

CBM project for cost-effective plan
 Reservoir description
◦ Coal thickness
◦ Quality
◦ Lateral continuity
◦ Structural position
 Reservoir engineering
◦ Gas content, saturation cond., isotherm,
pressures and permeability
158
Appraisal and Development Strategy (cont.)
 Operations engineering
◦ Can wells be successfully drilled, completed,
stimulated and produced
159
 If appraising a new area, collect relevant

info from
◦ Conventional wells
◦ Mining operations
◦ Mining core holes
◦ Geophysical surveys
◦ Geological mapping
◦ Remote sensing studies
160
 Compare the data with characteristics of

producing CBM reservoirs to estimate
possible gas rates and reserves
 Identify the prospective area in the basin
for drilling appraisal wells
 Core, log, test and produce the coal
seams
 Determine sufficient coal thickness, gas
content, and perm to justify a pilot
project
161
 If pilot decided should be closely spaced 5

spot or 9 spot pattern
 Close spacing will determine if
dewatering is quick or not and if
significant gas can be produced
 Expand pilot to produce economically at a
development well spacing
162
 Proper pilot should provide opportunity

for testing different
◦ Completions
◦ Stimulation methods
◦ Artificial methods
 Reservoir surveillance plan should be
created to accumulate
◦ Routine production
◦ Pressure and fluid entry data over time
163
 Simulation studies should be conducted

to
◦ Integrate and reconcile all the collected data
◦ Determine reservoir mechanisms
◦ Evaluate development well spacing and
patterns
◦ Forecast for commercial rate achievement
164
Drilling – Main equipments
 Often guided by completion method
 Example for cavity completion
◦ Rig should be equipped with a power swivel
with rotating, reciprocating and circulating
options during cleanouts
◦ Air compressors and boosters
◦ BOPs
◦ Rotating head (rotating seal that allows
drilling with well under pressure with
controlled return fluid flow diversion)
◦ Manifold and flowlines for production testing
165
Rotating Control Head Power Swivel
166
Power swivel or a top drive means a drilling
machine that includes has the following functions:
1. Hydraulically or electrically powered drill string

rotation
2. Sealing arrangement allowing pumping high
pressure drilling fluid
3. Integrated kelly valve (safety valve)
4. Ability to safely hang the rotating drill string
load
167
Top Drive
168
Top Drive
169
Top drive are power swivels with an automated
drilling and pipe handling system.
1. Standard elevator and links which may be

hydraulically manipulated by the driller to pick up
pipe from the mouse hole, the V-door, or the
vertical racked position in the derrick
2. The time-saving ability to trip pipe without

removing the power swivel
170
Top Drive (cont.)
 The time-saving ability to drill down with
doubles or triples
 The ability to make or break connections
above the rig floor by remote control
171
Drilling – Coal Zone
 Reservoir pressure and coal
characteristics determines drilling fluid
◦ Mud
◦ Water
◦ Air
◦ Gas
◦ Mist
 Water-sensitive shales may need gas or
air to minimize swelling and sloughing
172
Drilling – Coal Zone (cont.)
 Slight under-balance minimize damage
 Horizontal drilling common in US
(Arkoma basin Oklahoma, Appalachian
basin of West Virginia)
 Multilaterals also used in coal mining to
degas coal seams before mining
173
RIL

Coring
 Conventional drillpipe conveyed
◦ Triptime of an hour or more
◦ More time, so more lost gas
◦ Corrective methods but not accurate
 Wireline
◦ Sampling time less, 15-20 minutes
 Pressure coring
◦ Traps coal downhole in a sealed barrel with no
lost gas
◦ 5 times more expensive than conventional and
difficult to operate technology
175
Coring
176
177
Loss during Coring
 Core recoveries are often low due to
cleating and friable coal breaking up
 Many operators wait until gas kick till
then top few ft of coal is missed
 If thin coal, it may be missed completely
 Sidewall coring may be option then
178
Completions
 Most common - run casing, perforate and
fracture
◦ Low perm coal – long thin propped frac
◦ High perm coal – short wide propped frac
 Very high perm undamaged coal – left
openhole
 Dynamic cavity completions in some
areas
179
180
181
Completions (cont.)
 Completion optimization is trial and error
 Understand available completions, their
applicability, and reservoir data
 GRI has a lot of CBM completion studies
 Service companies have successful
stimulation designs to start with
◦ Apply them your specific coal reservoir
◦ Use stimulation model before drilling as frac
pressures stages and production rates are tied
to type of rig equipments, tubulars & cost
182
Fracturing
 Well is cased
 Only individual coal seams are perforated
leaving interbedded swelling shales and
fractured zones with a lot of water
 Completed coal seams are tested for
pressure, perm and skin before fracking
183
Fracturing (cont.)
 Well fracked in multiple stages with
treatments optimized for a particular coal
seam or group of seams
 Stages are isolated with bridge plugs, frac
baffles, sand plugs, or ball sealers
 Limited entry stimulations (injecting into
selected perfs) may be appropriate if the
coal seams distributed over a long
interval
184
Fracturing (cont.)
 For thin multiple coals a modified CT
(coil-tubing) unit could be cost-effective
 Tracers often added to frac fluid to
determine frac height using gamma ray log
 Subsequent well testing can determine
the frac conductivity
 During production, fluid-entry surveys
(spinner or temperature log) can be used
to find individual coal seam contribution
185
Fracturing (cont.)
 Biggest disadvantage is often productivity
is lower than expected
 Horizontal, vertical or complex fractures
may be generated depending on depth,
seam thickness and in-situ stresses
 Fractures may be very tortuous leading to
high treatment pressures and early
screenouts
186
Fracturing (cont.)
 Severe formation damage can be caused
by coal fines and frac fluids
 Due to low formation temperatures gel
breakers are less effective
 Open-hole fracking has been tried in
several US basins but mostly yielded
unfavorable results due to poor downhole
controls
187
CBM Fracturing Fluid
 Typically are water-based and can be put
into four categories
 Slickwater
 Gel
 Foam
 Proppantless
188
Fracturing Fluid – Water based
 Plain water or slickwater (water with
Polyacrylamide friction reducer)
 Preferred due to less damaging & less
expensive than gel
 50-80 bpm rates to compensate for low
viscosity and poor sand carrying capacity
 12/20 to 20/40 mesh sand with proppant
loading of 2000-3000 lbm/ft of net coal
U.S. 12 mesh size = 1.68 mm, size 20 = 0.841 mm, size 40 = 0.42 mm
189
Fracturing Fluid – Water based
 Proppant is typically ramped from 1
lbm/gal of fluid to 4-6 lb per gallon of fluid
as a slurry (note the above is not slurry
density)
 Main disadvantage of a water frac is the
tendency for premature screenouts
creating shorter fracs and poorer well
performance
190
Fracturing Fluid – Gel based
 Use natural polymer (ex. guar) or synthetic
polymers to provide viscosity
 Can be linear or cross-linked gels
 Large transport capacity due to high
viscosities enable them for much bigger jobs
 Proppant are 12/20 – 20/40 mesh sand
 Proppant loadings are 5000-10000 lbm/ft of
net coal
 Major disadvantage: serious formation
damage by cleat blockage from gel residue
191
Fracturing Fluid – Foam based
 Dispersing a gas (N2 or CO2) within the
water-based frac fluid
 Commonly used in low perm and/or low
pressured coals
 When combined with gel systems, foams can
provide high viscosities to carry proppant
 Additional benefit is foam’s low hydrostatic
head which creates rapid flowback
 Disadv. is safety concern of pumping an
energized fluid, rapid proppant flowback and
cost of gas
192
Fracturing Fluid – Proppantless
 Generally plain water is used but gel or
foam can be used
 When water-based, volumes and rates is
similar to slickwater design
 Benefits of proppantless stimulations
◦ No proppant flowback
◦ No residual gel damage
◦ Cost savings
193
Fracturing Fluid – Proppantless
 Effective when wellbore is connected to
high perm coals (applied in powder river
basin of Wyoming)
 Less effective in low perm coals such as
Black Warrior basins of Alabama (rates
are half compared to conventional
propped fracturing)
194
Dynamic Cavity Completions (DCC)
 Cavity completion is an openhole
completion with an intentionally enlarged
wellbore (cavity) in the target coal
interval
 Pioneered in overpressured Fruitland
Coal fairway of the San Juan basin
 Produced gas and water at rates more
than 10 times greater than those of
nearby fractured wells
195
Dynamic Cavity Completions (DCC)
 Perm is believed to be enhanced by
creating
◦ Self propped tensile fracs and orthogonal
shear failure zones
◦ Surging and cycling process increases
permeability by removing formation damage
and dilatancy
 Created by causing a large pressure drop
in the wellbore, resulting in redistribution
of stresses and subsequent coal failure
196
DCC (cont.)
 Sonar probes run in cavitated wells
indicate cavern dia. as large as 8 ft
 Different cavitation techniques have
evolved in response to
◦ Different coal properties
◦ Problem of initiating coal failures
◦ Stuck pipe or tools
◦ Cavity instabilities
197
Cavitation Techniques/Operations
 Drilling
 Natural
 Injection
 Mechanical
 Jetting
 Each technique is conducted multiple

times over the coal zone until an
acceptable flowrate is obtained
198
Drilling Technique for Cavitation
 Coal zone is drilled underbalanced
 Coal shears or breaks off along near-
wellbore cleats or fracture planes
 High circulation rates with air, gas, or mist
generally used to clean the hole
effectively
199
Natural Technique for Cavitation
 Coal is drilled with air, gas, or mist & bit is
lifted above seam and well is shut-in
 Well builds pressure naturally until a
specific pressure is achieved
 Buildup surface pressure should be
recorded
 Well is rapidly opened at surface
 This causes high-rate depressurization
with a surge of water, gas and coal rubble
200
Natural Technique for Cavitation (cont.)
 Stuff produced up the well, through a

flowline to the flare pit
 Bit is lowered while rotating, reciprocating
and circulating
 Wellbore is cleaned out
 Operation is repeated until adequate
results are achieved
201
Natural Technique for Cavitation (cont.)
 Next zone drilled and process repeated

 Sometimes all zones drilled before
attempting natural cavitation
202
Injection Technique for Cavitation
 Similar to natural, except well is
pressured up from the surface and then
surged
 Process repeated many times for several
days or weeks depending on cycle results
 Different fluids can be injected ex. air,
water, CO2, foam, or coal-comminuting
solvents for pressuring up
 Excess wellbore pressure is sometimes in
excess of 1500 psia
203
Injection Technique for Cavitation (cont.)
 Sudden release of induced pressure at

surface by hydraulic valves resulting in
flow of water, gas, and coal rubble
 Well is continuously circulated thru the
annulus with air or gas
 Sometimes large cavities are formed
resulting in large pieces of coal not
circulating out
 These can be drilled with the fill cleaned
204
Mechanical Technique for Cavitation
 Coal zones are drilled to total depth
 Mechanical hole opener (underreamer) is
used to enlarge the wellbore
 Removes near wellbore damage
205
Mechanical Technique for Cavitation
 In some cases, noncoal zones above and
below are underreamed to relieve
overburden stresses causing the coals to
fail more easily
 In some cases, natural or injection
cavitation is performed after
underreaming
206
Jetting Technique for Cavitation
 Jetting cavitation uses high pressure gas
and water directly on coal face
 May be performed to facilitate a cavity
when other methods have failed
 Used in several basins with mixed success
 In Piceance basin of the western U.S.,
jetting cavitation increased gas prod. from
20 Mscf/D to 100 Mscf/D
207
Recavitations
 Performed when original cavity is
underperforming compared to offset
cavitated wells or when unexplainable
production decline is observed
 Injection technique is typically used with a
modified completion/cavitation rig
 Well is killed with water and production
liner removed
208
Recavitations (cont.)
 Removal is sometimes difficult, resulting in
sidetrack/redrill of the original hole
 Well is recavitated until acceptable flow
rate is achieved, the cavity is stable and
produced coal fines are minimal
209
Cavitation/Recavitation Caution
 After successful cavitation or recavitation,
it is crucial no pressure surges are applied
 When the well is ready for production, it
should be opened slowly over a period of
several hours to limit surging of water
and gas thereby minimizing the movement
of coal fines and spalling (breaking) of coal
210
211
Core Analysis (cont.)
 Critical for determining gas saturation,
production rate estimates and recovery
factor
 Stored in canisters, heated to reservoir
temperatures and gas collected via
desorption up to several months
 Both gas volume and type identified
 Canisters opened, core described, and
part crushed in a mill
212
 From crushed sample residual gas is
determined
 Representative sample is made from the
milled/crushed coal and following are
determined
◦ Sorption Isotherm
◦ Proximate analysis
◦ Ultimate analysis
◦ Vitrinite reflectance
◦ Maceral analysis
◦ Bulk density
213
 Half of the initial core could be preserved
with only half milled for
◦ Petrographic examination
◦ Future studies
 Core analysis critical for gas-in-place,
production rates, and recovery factor
214
Log Analysis
 Open-hole logs can not estimate useful
matrix wall porosity where gas is
adsorbed or the gas saturation
 Nonetheless, coal seams (location and
thickness) easily identified by logs
◦ Low density
◦ Low gamma ray
◦ High resistivity
◦ High apparent neutron and sonic porosity
◦ Caliper logs (washouts in coals)
215
Low Radioactivity High Resistivity Low Density
Low Radioactivity High Resistivity Low Density
216
Log Analysis (cont.)
 Pure coals have low density and low
photoelectric absorption
 Degree of separation between
micronormal and microinverse logs gives
permeability qualitatively
 Thicker mudcakes indicated by caliper
logs indicate higher perms
 Geochemical, NMR, Imaging logs could
identify fractures and interbedded shales
217
Log Analysis (cont.)
 Gross coal character (coal seams)
identifiable but finer/laminated bright
banded coals with good cleats and high
gas content not identifiable in logs
 Similar to thin-bedded-pay problem in
clastic reservoirs
 This emphasizes the value of core analysis
 Pure coals identified could be gas-rich or
gas-poor
218
Coal Evaluation Logs by Anderson (2003) Gas Content in
Track 3 and Cleat
Neutron-induced intensity in Track 4
gamma ray
spectroscopy
Proximate Analysis
from coal and logs –
Tracks 1 and 2
219
Coal Seam Identification during Mud Logging
 Gas kicks
 Changes in drilling rate
 Lithology description
 Mud logging recommended for

exploratory and appraisal wells for coal
seams and gas identification
220
Well Testing
 Similar to conventional tests
 Pressure build-up
◦ Water is produced at constant q
◦ Well is shut-down after some time
 Injection/fall-off test
◦ Injection of water is done at constant q
◦ Well is shut-down
 Slug test
◦ Fixed amt. of fluid head/slug is suddenly added
or removed from the well
221
Well Testing (cont.)
 Slug tests simple to run and inexpensive
 Applicable to a small radius of
investigation and to under-pressured
reservoirs
 Usually CBM reservoirs are
heterogeneous requiring large rinv to
characterize
 Can be used to determine completions
effectiveness and skin
222
BC and EF reflect
constant rates
Note the
difference
between
conventional
DST and slug
DST
B’C’ and E’F’ reflects

decreasing rates
223
224
225
Slug in and Slug out Test
226
Slug Test
(Sanders
1998)
L. L. Sanders.
A Manual of Field
Hydrogeology.
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 1998.
ISBN 0-13-227927-4.
227
Slug Test Dimensionless Parameters
228
Slug Test
Type Curve
Semi-log
type curve
The actual
data plot is
PD vs t and
the
movement is
restricted to
horizontal
only
229
Slug Test Type Curve
Log-log
type curve
230
 Absolute and skin can be calculated by
type curve matching the test data against
Ramey et al.’s type curves using the
following equations
rc = tubing or
casing radius
231
232
Example
Data
233
Type Curve
Matched
234
Slug Test Reference (Hydrology)
 Cooper et al. 1967. Response of a Finite-
Diameter Well to an Instantaneous Charge of
Water. Water Resources Research. Vo. 3. No. 1
 Papadopulos et al. 1973. On the Analysis of ‘Slug
Test’ Data. Water Resources Research.Vol. 9.
No. 4.
235
Slug Test Reference (Petroleum Engg.)
 Ramey et al. 1975. Analysis of Slug Test or DST
Flow Period Data. The Journal of Canadian
Petroleum Technology
 Koenig, R. A. and Schraufnagel R. A.: "Application
of Slug Test in Coalbed Methane Testing," paper
SPE 8743 presented at the 1987 Coalbed
Methane Symposium, Tuscaloosa, AL, November
16-19.
236
 Conventional buildup and drill-stem tests
are applicable (coal fines & under-
pressured reservoir issue)
 Lower perm and lower reservoir
pressure results in longer test time
 Conventional injection/fall-off tests
applicable (no coal fines & under-p issue)
 Bottom-hole shutdown preferred to
minimize wellbore storage and test time
237
 Bottom hole shutdown device critical in
underpressured reservoirs as liquid levels
may fall in the wellbore during fall-off
 Low injection rates are used for injection
with BHP < 80% of formation parting
pressure
 Shut down time is approx. twice the
injection time
 Injection/fall-off tests more expensive
than buildup and slug tests
238
Advantages of Injection/Fall-off Tests
 Single-phase flow
 No complication of gas desorption
 Larger investigative area than slug tests
 No coal fines production
 Applicable to under-pressured reservoirs
239
Critical Well Test Parameter –
Permeability from Well Tests
 Permeability is critical for estimating CBM
production rates and ultimate recovery
240
Permeability from Well Tests (cont.)
 Avg. field permeability should be
determined early in the life of a reservoir,
preferably before fracturing
 Two-phase flow is not there in early tests
– especially in injection/fall-off tests
 2-f tests can be done to determine perm
as a function of pressure and gas
desorption for future absolute and rel.
perm. estimates
241
 Post-fracture tests done for fracture
permeability, length and width estimates
 Absolute perm & rel. perm curves
estimated from simulation, analogous
fields or published literature
 Coal degasification pseudo-pressure
function by Kamal and Six can be used
◦ The method uses sorption isotherm and rel.
perm relations
242
 Multiple-well tests (interference & pulse
tests) should be used to indicate
permeability anisotropy
 Typically face cleats have greater perm
 Directional perm ratios as high as 17:1
have been reported
 Significant impact on choice of well-
pattern, orientation and spacing
243
 Commercial software or conventional
pressure-transient equations can be used
 1-5 md can be used for the well-test
design
 Coal thickness, gas content and initial
saturation state also important
244
 Coal has dual porosity, but most CBM
wells can be analyzed with homogeneous
models because major flow is Darcy’s
flow in the cleated reservoir
 Conventional well-tests preferred due to
simplicity but if adequate, reservoir
simulators can be used to history match
well-test data
245
246
247
Multiwell Pilot Projects
 Multiwell pilots are a key element to
appraisal potential of a CBM reservoir
 Typical pilot consists of closely spaced
wells produced for sufficient time
 Objectives are to quantify variations in
◦ Net pay
◦ Gas content
◦ Gas saturation
◦ Permeability
248
Multiwell Pilot Projects (cont.)
 Objectives are to quantify variations in
◦ Ability to dewater by decreasing res. prs.
◦ Gas productivity for commercial rates
◦ Test completions: HF, cavitation, AL
◦ Evaluate well spacing and pattern
 Size of pilot should be optimum
◦ Large enough to represent part of reservoir
◦ Small enough to achieve results fast
 Typically produce 6-12 months at well
spacing < 40 acres
249
 Numerical simulations for optimization &
pilot predictions
 A five-spot can be implemented to get
water & gas rates, flowing & shut-in BHPs
 Successful pilot should show decreasing
water rates & decreasing reservoir
pressure while increasing gas rates
 If gas rates reach an economic level, pilot
expanded to development-scale-spacing
250
 If gas rates increasing but sub-economic
◦ Pilot expanded at current spacing to a nine-
spot or other configuration to minimize
water influx and to achieve economic gas
rates
◦ Pilot produced for longer period
◦ Pilot project terminated
251
 Before making decision, reconcile pilot
well performance with core, log and well-
test data through reservoir simulation (an
alternative well completion may be the
solution)
252
 Staged piloting minimizes time and cost of
evaluation
 In frontier area, multiple pilots needed to
get assessment and sales contracts
 No. of appraisal wells and additional wells
for pilot must be determined
 If several widely spaced appraisal wells
indicate similar reservoir properties, a
single pilot sufficient
253
 If properties vary dramatically, multiple
pilots needed
 Drill first pilot wells around most
prospective appraisal well
 If that one pilot is successful, proceed
 If unsuccessful, exit
 Unfortunately CBM evaluation takes many
years to reach a decision with unclear
evaluation and exit strategy – mgmt.
looses interest
254
Numerical Simulation Studies
 CBM reservoirs complex due to
◦ Layering
◦ Fracturing
◦ Heterogeneity
 Properties vary rapidly with variations
difficult to quantify
 f and gas saturation preferred from cores,
analogous reservoirs, & corelations than
logs
255
Numerical Simulation Studies
 Compressibility and gas storage difficult
to measure in lab and range over several
orders of magnitude
 Other complications are
◦ Fluid from noncoal layers
◦ Strong directional permeability trends
256
Numerical Simulation Studies (Adv.)
 Ability to model and integrate data from
◦ Reservoir
◦ Completion types
◦ Well performance
 Resolves data discrepancies and provide
key insights into production mechanisms
Incorporate gas storage and diffusion
mechanisms
257
Numerical Simulation Studies (Adv.)
 Revises the geologic model including
aquifer size and strength
 Evaluates development options – well
spacing, well pattern, fracture design
 Provide reasonable rate and reserve
estimate
258
Numerical Simulation Studies (cont.)
 Because of CBM reservoir complexities,
rates and reserve forecasts are less
certain than in conventional reservoirs
 Perhaps most valuable use of simulation is
to evaluate the effects of variations in key
parameters (sensitivity analysis)
259
 In addition to usual reservoir data
◦ Gas content at initial reservoir conditions
◦ Sorption isotherms
◦ Diffusion coefficient
◦ Absolute permeability changes with pore
pressure changes and gas desorption
 Use representative core and well-test
data for each coal seam
260
 Obtain regular high quality production
data for history match
 Water and gas rates easily measured
 Flowing BHP can be estimated from fluid
levels in a pumping well
 Simulations can be used to determine the
frequency to obtaining shut-in pressures,
often measured with well work or
planned shut-in periods
261
Avg. max gas production rate / bore = 400 Mscf/day
Stable well production = 364 Mscf/D

Gas-In-Place in a CBM Reservoir
G = gas in place, Mscf ZT(oR)

A = areal extent, acres Bgi = 28.27E - 6
P (psia)
h = net coal thickness, ft
fcl = cleat porosity, fraction
Swi = initial water saturation fraction in the cleats, fraction
Bgi = initial gas formation volume factor, Mcf/scf
Gc = gas content (dry ash-free basis), scf/ton
rc = coal density (dry ash-free basis), g/cc
fa = ash weight fraction, lbm ash/lbm coal
fw = water weight fraction, lbm water/lbm coal 264
GIP (cont.)
 Coal seams/thickness counted when bulk
density is < 1.75 g/cc
 Gas content from coal core-desorption
corrected for residual and lost gas
 Several 100 scf/ton quite common, can
range < 10 scf/ton to > 1000 scf/ton
 Ash and water fraction from proximate
analysis of desorption canister samples
 Ash fraction is 0 for pure coals and 1 for
mudstones
265
GIP (cont.)
 Cleat porosities difficult to measure,
typically assigned values 0.01 to 0.05
 Swi assumed 1 unless free gas
266
GIP (cont.)
 Determining accurate GIP parameters is
often difficult and time consuming
 Estimates must be revised as additional
wells are drilled
 Few wells are cored, and samples are not
representative of the heterogeneity
 Lost-gas corrections can be large
 A good guide is Gas Research Institute
publications (USA)
267
Reserves & Recovery Factor
 Remaining CBM reserves commonly
updated through out the life of project
 Qualitative before drilling to quantitative
after production
 In initial screening stage, key reservoir
parameters related to recovery factors
 Data from analogous producing fields can
be used to estimate the reserves for a
new asset if characteristics are similar
268
Reserves & Recovery Factor (cont.)
 With multiple well production data and
cores, recovery factors and reserves
estimates are revised
 Isotherm can be used to predict the
recovery factor
 However numerical simulation is more
realistic to predict the effect of perm on
economic time frame to establish the
abandonment pressure
269
Note significant gas is produced at low pressures
Critical assumption: Perm and coal-seam continuity are sufficient

to achieve abandonment pressure in an economic time frame
1 MPa = 145 psi

1 m3 = 35.15 ft3 270
Reserves & Recovery Factor (cont.)
 Modified material-balance with gas
desorption term is used
 Decline-curve analysis can be used in mid-
to-late stages
 A mature well performance profile can be
used for a new similar well (type curves)
271
Drilling – First Step
 Compile data on existing wells in the area
◦ Reservoir depths & pressures
◦ Drilling histories
 Sources
◦ Regulatory bodies
◦ Service companies
◦ Coal mine operators
◦ Published literature
 Draft drilling and completion
course/outcome 272
Drilling – Strategy
 Keep it simple in frontier/appraisal wells, ex.
use water-based fluids as they are safer but
more damaging than gas based (kick issues)
 Rig options
◦ Conventional rotary rigs
◦ Modified water-well rigs for shallow wells
◦ Top-drives
◦ Mining-rigs
◦ Coiled-tubing drilling units
 Drill to the top of target and move to next
well (completion done by completion rig)
273
Well Behavior
 Little or no gas initially with moderate to

high water rates (10-1000 bwpd) for
months to years
 Gas desorbs and reaches a critical
saturation above which it flows
 Gas ramp up periods of 3-5 yrs. common
 If no strong aquifer connection, water
rates decline to a minimum
274
Well Behavior (cont.)
 Possible to have high initial gas rates and

low water rates if gas is saturated and no
aquifer support
 Closely spaced multiple wells result in
quick dewatering and economic gas
production rates
 CBM wells economic life is 20-40 years
San Juan basin, but less in other areas
 Reservoir simulators may be used to plan
275
276
Generalized Production from CBM Well
https://lngjournal.com/images/stories/article_images/2011/July_August/LNGj_2011_07_Articl
e_04_Image_03.gif 277
278
Generalized Production from CBM Well
https://lngjournal.com/images/stories/article_images/2011/July_August/LNGj_2011_07_Articl
e_04_Image_01.gif 279
Production Operations & Facilities
 Similar to gas wells except one distinction:
Low initial GWR instead of high GWR
 Hence equipment and facilities for water
handling and disposal be built at start of
project – lead time and investment
 Operational goal is to depressurize the
reservoir by continuously producing water
at low BHP
 Lift system’s ability to be modified to handle
decreasing water and increasing gas rates
280
Production Operations & Facilities (cont.)
 Smaller tubulars and pumps required as

water rate drops
 Initial gas may be flared in frontier areas
without access to gas transmission system
 Acquisition of initial and subsequent
reservoir pressures from each well is
critical in determining if depressuring is
occurring
 Use downhole gauges or static well fluid
levels for the measurements 281
Production Operations & Facilities (cont.)
 Flowing BHP should also be measured

every few months especially in a new pilot
or development wells
 Production logging tools (PLT) should be
run to determine which coal seams are
contributing
 Bottom completion string should be
designed to accommodate the tools
necessary to run the PLTs under pumping
conditions using ESP
282
Water Production
 Initial water rates depend on
◦ Avg. coal perm and
◦ Aquifer strength
 Perm often varies by 3 orders of
magnitude within same field, so water
rates vary too with this order of mag.
 For ex. in the Black Warrior basin of
Alabama’s initial water rates for 420 wells
ranged from 17 to 1,175 bwpd, averaging
103 bwpd
285
Water Production (cont.)
 Rates can be unusually high due to coals
recharge along the basin margin
 Rates can be low due to coals
depressurized due to mining or previous
production
 Water rates should peak within few years
286
Water Production (cont.)
 If rates high for more than a few years
◦ Extremely strong aquifer, or
◦ Number/spacing of wells insufficient to
depressure the reservoir
 Nearly all wells require AL to accelerate
dewatering and depressurization
 ESPs, PCPs, beam pumps, and gas lift are
common methods
 Suggested to choose simplest to operate
and least troublesome
287
Artificial Lift for CBM
 ESPs ideal for pumping > 1,000 bwpd
◦ Need reliable electricity
◦ Can be damaged by coal fines, common in
early production
 PCPs popular, can pump100-1,000 bwpd
◦ Can handle coal fines
◦ Require little maintenance
 Beam pump can hand 5-500 bwpd, and
◦ Require little maintenance
288
Artificial Lift for CBM (cont.)
 Gas lift can handle 5-50 bwpd
◦ Requires specific well pressures
 Bottom line is
◦ Minimize downtime
◦ Keep the well pumped off
289
Water Disposal
 Most important consideration in a CBM
development
 Can be very costly to
◦ Build water handling / treatment facilities
◦ Drill disposal wells
◦ Comply with numerous environmental
regulations
 In marginal projects – water disposal
costs can be the decisive factor
290
Water Disposal (cont.)
 Remember water production in CBM
wells should be viewed as an early, short
term problem that must be overcome to
produce gas economically
 To decide the disposal method
◦ A complete water chemical analysis and
◦ Anticipated water rates are needed
291
Water Disposal (cont.)
Common 3 disposal techniques
1. Subsurface injection, typically requires
drilling deeper into approved disposal zone
2. Surface evaporation ponds and a spray/mist
system to evaporate produced water
3. Stream discharge that requires an elaborate
treating and monitoring system for checking
chlorides, total dissolved solids (TDS:
minerals, salts and organic matter) to
acceptable levels
292
Facilities
 Production facilities should be able to
handle
◦ Produce water
◦ Coal fines
◦ Low pressure gas
 Forecast of water rates necessary to size
separators, flowlines, transfer pumps and
storage facilities
293
Facilities
 Separators remove most of the produced
water but heater-treaters and
glycol/adsorber dehydrators can be used
 Filters may be required to remove coal
fines to keep valves and equipments
functioning properly
 If scale-forming minerals (ex. carbonates,
sulphates), treatment may be needed to
protect tubulars and surface equipment
294
Facilities (cont.)
 If water to be disposed off-site, trucks or
pipeline required
 If water to be disposed via wells, wellhead
assemblies and flow control equipment
required
 CBM gas rarely contains H2S but may
contain N2, CO2 above pipeline specs
 Ex. Oak Grove field the Black Warrior
basin contains 3.4% N2
295
Facilities (cont.)
 Piceance basin contains 6.4% CO2
 Amine scrubbing for CO2 removal
 Molecular sieve/dessicant for dehydration
 Cryogenic processing for N2 removal,
methane liquifies (boiling point = -161.6
oC) earlier than nitrogen (boiling point = -
195.69 oC)
 After gas treatment (removal of water
and impurities), gas is sent to compressor
296
Facilities (cont.)
 If sufficient gas volume, compressor
installed at wellsite, if not a centralized
compressor for several wells can be used
 Compressor
◦ Size depends on gas volume
◦ Amt. of compression depends on trunk or
transmission line specs
297
Facilities (cont.)
 Some pipeline companies
◦ Accept low pressure gas, in 50-150 psi range
◦ While others require compression up to 900
psi
 After compression, a final dehydration is
done before delivery
298
Enhanced Recovery
 CO2 has been injected in San Juan to

recover more CH4 as coal desorbed CH4
and adsorbed CO2 instead (coal prefers
CO2 more than CH4)
◦ Disadvantage is that coal swells and reduces
cleat perms
◦ Advantage is CO2 sequestration
 Injecting N2 reduces the partial pressure
of CH4 and resulted in its higher
desorption
299
Enhanced Recovery (cont.)
 Producing methane via reducing its partial

pressure is more effective than reducing
the total pressure via dewatering
 Injecting gases also increases the
reservoir pressure needed to drive
methane to the wellbore and up
 2 pilot projects tested in San Juan
◦ Burlington Resources’ Allison pilot
◦ BP’s Tiffany Unit pilot
 ONGC is trying microbial injection
300
History of US CBM Industry
 Coal mines used to vent gas intentionally
since 19th century
 Production and sale of methane from

coalbed wellbores is relatively recent
 Some gas from coal seams was produced

from Wyoming, Kansas and West Virginia
in early 1900’s
301
History Cont.
 Exclusive CBM producers occurred in
early 1950’s in San Juan basin in New
Mexico
 Target was Fruitland coal seams
 Grew weak until 1970’s when an energy

crisis in the U.S. encouraged feasibility and
investment in CBM
302
History Cont.
 Late 1970’s several companies completed
wells in Fruitland seams with several 100’s
Mscf/d of gas, & Black warrior basin was
drilled to degas coal seams
 In 1980s, U.S. federal tax credit

introduced for unconventional fuel
sources
 Research and drilling boom happened

303
History Cont.
 5,500 CBM wells by 1992 in U.S.
 Facilitated by service companies and

pipeline infrastructure already serving
conventional gas wells
 CBM in new basins – Uinta, Powder River

developed in 1990’s w/o tax credits
304
History Cont.
 More than 1000’s of exploration, test and
producing CBM wells world-wide today
 Other than U.S. CBM production

◦ 1000’s of CBM wells in Alberta, Canada
◦ Queensland, Australia
◦ 150 wells Raniganj South, West Bengal, GEECL
305
306
Total = 381 TCF w/o
Alaska, Forest City,
and Cherokee
307
Factors Hampering CBM Growth
 Unfavorable reservoir conditions (not
enough gas)
 Govt. policies
 Absences of gas pipeline and markets
 Lack of CBM service industry
308
By 2000 US had proven
reserves of 10 TCF and 10,000
producing wells (PEH: Vol. VI)
309
(1.7 TCF/yr)
(1 TCF/yr)
2010 Data
310
>400 acre/well >320 acre/wl 80 acre/well 80 acre/well
311
Continued
Note govt. incentives & high-value markets could elevate a marginal project to commercial
312
Case Study – San Juan Basin (US)
 Located in New Mexico and Colorado
 Most prolific CBM basin in the world
Northwest-
eastward
trending
major coal
seams
313
Case Study – San Juan Basin (cont.)
 Produces 2.5 Bscf/D (0.91 TCF/yr) from
coals of Cretaceous Fruitland formation
 Current resource estimate ~ 45 Tscf
314
San Juan Basin – CBM History
 Fruitland formation coals for long time
recognized as source rock for adjacent
sandstone gas reservoirs
 After years of gas kicks in these coals, CBM
was anticipated commercially
 Drilling and log data from previous deeper
sandstone wells were useful
 Extensive pipeline for conventional gas
 US federal tax credit and cavity completions
fueled 3000 CBM wells by 1992
315
San Juan Basin (Ref. Wikipedia)
316
San Juan Basin – Coal Characteristics
 Max total coal thickness exceeds 100 ft
and individual coal seams 30 ft
 Origin – Peat swamps
 Overpressured aquifer (0.44-0.63 psi/ft)
with high gas adsorbed on high rank coal
with high perm in the fairway
 CO2 up to 9.4% and C2+ 13.5%
 Thermogenic gases augmented by
biogenic gases, up to 700 scf/ton
317
San Juan Basin – Coal Characteristics (cont.)
 Rank medium to low volatile bituminous

 Low ash and high vitrinite reflectance
 Perm > 10 md
 Well developed cleats
318
– Southwest of Fairway (Nonfairway coals)
 20-40 ft, thinner zone
 Underpressured down to 0.2 psi/ft
 Low recharge rates
 Hydraulic isolation
 Low coal perms < 10 md
 Buried less deeply
 Low ranked (high volatile B bituminous)
 Gas content < 200 scf/ton
 Higher ash, poorer cleating
319
– Transition Zone
 1-2 miles between fairway and nonfairway
 Slight change in dip – structural hingeline
 Combination of faulting, stratigraphic
thinning and diminished quality coal
320
San Juan Basin – Drilling & Completion
 In 1970s-early 80s wells were cased,
perforated and hydraulically fractured
 Skins were high because of drilling,
cementing and frac fluids
 1986 Meridian Oil began pilot with
openhole-cavity completion
 Gas rates > 1 MMscf/D / well
 Some wells ~ 10 MMscf/D
 80% wells are cavity completions in
fairway with rates 4 times fractured wells
321
San Juan Basin – Cavity Comp. wells
 Analysis > 100 successful cavity wells in
fairway area showed
◦ smin of 2,080 psi
◦ Coal depths 2,000-3,600 ft
◦ Ash < 70%
◦ High-volatile A bituminous or better
◦ BHP > 1,370 psi
 Cavity completions unsuccessful in areas

with less favorable coal characteristics
322
San Juan Basin – D&C (cont.) - Nonfairway
 Much lower gas rates

 Still economical
 Highly variable gas rates from less than
100 Mscf/D to more than 700 Mscf/D
 Biggest factor – Perm
 Some wells > 300 Mscf/D for > 5 years
with perm > 10 md
323
 Various completions used in nonfairway

◦ Hydraulic fracturing
◦ Acid breakdowns
◦ Unstimulated
 These result in near wellbore damage
 However with production, matrix
shrinks and results in higher perm which
offsets the damage
324
 Low fbhps were maintained because of

low reservoir pr.
 Gas compression was required to meet
pipeline pressure requirements.
325
San Juan Basin – Well Performance
 Total basin production – 2.5 Bscf/D
 3,500 wells
 Good wells (Fairway area)
◦ Peak 6 MMscf/D (6,000 Mscf/D)
◦ Ultimate well recovery of 15 Bscf
◦ Perm > 10 md
◦ Typical well spacing area 320 acres
◦ Abandonment prs. < 100 psia
◦ Recovery factors > 70%
326
San Juan Basin – Well Performance – Non
fairway area
 Peak rates only few hundred Mscf/D
 Perm. 1-5 md, hence
 Closely spaced wells
 Higher abandonment pressures
 Lower recovery factors
327
San Juan Basin – Avg. Well Performance
 Avg. well had
◦ Initial gas rate of 100-400 Mscf/D
◦ Initial water rate of 40-400 BWPD
 Production typically
◦ Doubled in 2-4 yrs in fairway wells
◦ Flat in nonfairway wells
 Decline rates highly variable (<5% to >20%
/ year)
◦ Most Fairway wells had negative decline initially
for several yrs.
◦ Peak and and positive decline was difficult to
predit
328
329
330
331
End of CBM Course
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341

Coalbed Methane (CBM) : Prepared by Dr. Ajay Suri For Course PEE 18102

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Coalbed Methane (CBM)

Prepared by Dr. Ajay Suri

 Coal & CBM scenario – Global and India

 Formation and properties of CBM –

 Thermodynamics of CBM – isotherm

 Drilling and production systems of CBM

 Hydro-fracturing of coal seams

 Treating and disposal of produced waters

 Testing of CBM wells

 US CBM History & Case Study

 Fundamental of CBM Reservoir

 Chemically complex, combustible solid

 Based on appearance (bright/dull) and

 Vitrinite (Type III) – Major amt.

Bright bands are

Dull bands are

Well preserved woody material

Thick red bands (represents a

Only minor amounts of mineral

Large amts. of spores

If found with charcoal and

Preserved algal debris

 Based on wt% of organic material from

A Exceeding 6200 Not exceeding 19.5

Ministry of Coal; https://coal.nic.in/content/coal-grades 17

 Origin of coal is accumulated organic

 Organic matter first transforms into peat

 Continued compaction and dehydration

 With deeper burial, temp. increase and

 With deeper burial, HC are cracked into

 Generation and expulsion of HC changes

 At t > 150 deg. C, anthracite is formed (>

 Remaining volatiles driven off

All carbons have covalent bonds hence stronger than

Note Carbon sublimes (solid to gas) at temp. > 5000 deg. C 32

From “Coal and

 Higher rank coal yields higher fixed

1 TCE (ton of coal energy equivalence) = 0.7 TOE

1 TCE = 29.39 gigajoules, 27.78 million Btu, or 8.14

Tonne (official) or Metric tonne in SI units = 1000 kg

I short ton = 2000 pounds

Total World Coal Reserves ~ 17-30 Trillion tons 41

Total World: 17-30 TT

1 quad = 1015 BTU

 CBM resource of World around 9000 TCF

CBM reserves (in TCF). Data from Al-Jubori et al.

13th round in 2007, over 100 wells

20 applications were specifically

2-50 cbm wells will be developed

Produced by the Free Range

US: 306 GJ/yr = 50 BOE/yr = 21.8 liters/day

India ~ 10 GJ/yr = 1.6 BOE/yr < 1 liter/day

92 TCF Total CBM Resource Estimate

Source: Dr. Avinash Chandra Slides

 Estimated CBM resource of India ~ 95 Tcf

 Allocated reserves ~ 62.4 Tcf Note these are

 Established reserves ~ 9.9 Tcf

 Recoverable reserves ~ 4 Tcf