Ibb University

MA Programme

Task-based Language
Teaching (TBLT)

Dr. Marwan At-Tayar

1
 Background
TBLT refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core
unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.
It was first developed by N. Prabhu in India. Prabhu thought
that students may learn more effectively when their minds
focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using.
It represents a logical development of CLT since it draws on
several principles that formed part of the communicative
language teaching movement from the 1980s.
Tasks are proposed as useful vehicles for applying principles of
TBLT.
Engaging learners in task work provides a better context for the
activation of learning processes than form-focused activities.
Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students
not merely in comprehensible input but in tasks that require
them to engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication. 2
 Key Assumptions of Task-based Instruction
(Feez, 1998)
The focus is on process rather than product.
Purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication

and meaning are basic elements.

Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and

purposefully while engaged in activities and tasks.

Activities and tasks can be either those that:

- Learners might need to achieve in real life.

- Have a pedagogical purpose specific to the
classroom.
Activities and tasks in syllabus are sequenced according to

difficulty.
The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors

including the learners previous experience, the complexity of

the task, the language to do the task, and the degree of support
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 What is a Task?
According to Skehan (1996),
Tasks are activities which have meaning as their

primary focus.
Success in tasks is evaluated in terms of outcome

achievement.
Tasks have some resemblance to real-life language

use.

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 Communicative Tasks
According to Nunan (1989),
The communicative task is a piece of classroom work

which involves learners in

comprehending,
manipulating,
producing or
interacting

in the target language while their attention is mainly

focused on meaning rather than form.

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 Academic Tasks
Doyle (1983) defined academic task as the
mechanism through which the curriculum is
enacted for students.
Academic tasks have four important dimensions:

1. The products students are asked to produce.

2. The operations students are required to use in
order to produce the products.
3. The cognitive operations required and the
resources available.
4. The accountability system involved.

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 Other Definitions of Task
According to Breen (1987), task is a structured plan for the
provision of opportunities for the refinement of knowledge
and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during
communication.
For Prabhu (1987), a task is an activity which requires
learners to arrive at an outcome from given information
through some process of thought, which allows teachers to
control and regulate that process.
Crookes (1986) defined a task as a piece of work or an
activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as
part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data
for research.

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 Principles of TBLT
Making errors in natural and is considered as part of
the process of acquiring the target language.
Exposure to comprehensible input is crucial.
Learning tasks that facilitate learners engagement in

interactions are essential.

Learners should be encouraged to produce the target

language as this facilitates learning.

Focus on form is necessary.
Second language teaching and learning should be made

reasonable for learners.

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 Principles of TBLT
Learning tasks should be varied to meet the needs of
learners.
Learning tasks should encourage learners to attend to

both meaning and form.

Teaching and learning processes should foster

motivation and minimize learner anxiety.

The choice of learning tasks should be based on the age

and level of learners.

Learning tasks should arouse and maintain learners

learning motivation. (Priyana, 2006)

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 Theory of Language
TBLT is motivated primarily by a theory of learning
rather than a theory of language.
Yet, several assumptions about the nature of language

underlie TBLT.
1. Language is primarily a means of making
meaning.
2. Multiple models of language inform TBI.
3. Lexical units are central in language use and
language learning.
4. Conversation is the central focus of language and
the keystone of language acquisition.

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 Theory of Language
1. Language is primarily a means of making meaning:
TBLT emphasizes the central role of meaning in language
use, i.e., meaning is primary.
2. Multiple models of language inform TBI:
Task-based instruction draws on structural, functional,

and interactional models of language.

Structural criteria are used to determine the linguistic

complexity of tasks.
Tasks are also classified according to functions, such as

personal, narrative, and decision-making tasks.

The focus can also be on the interactional dimension of

tasks.

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 Theory of Language
Lexical units are central in language use and
language learning:
Vocabulary plays a central role in second language

learning.
Vocabulary includes not only words but also the

consideration of lexical phrases, sentence stems,

prefabricated routines, and collocations.
Conversation is the central focus of language and

the keystone of language acquisition:

Speaking and communicating with others through

the spoken language is considered the basis for

second language acquisition in TBI.
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 Theory of Learning
TBI shares the general assumptions of CLT about the
nature of language learning.
Some other assumptions include:

1. Tasks provide both the input and output processing

necessary for language acquisition.
2. Task activity and achievement are motivational.
3. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned
for particular pedagogical purposes.

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 Theory of Learning
1. Tasks provide both the input and output processing
necessary for language acquisition:
Productive output and not merely input is also critical for

adequate second language development.

Adequate opportunities for productive use of language are

critical for full language development.

Tasks are believed to foster processes of negotiation,

modification, rephrasing, and experimentation that are at the

heart of second language learning.

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 Theory of Learning
2. Task activity and achievement are motivational.
Tasks can improve learner motivation and therefore

promote learning because they

require the learners to use authentic language.
have well-defined dimensions and closure.
are varied in format and operation.
typically include physical activity.
involve partnership and collaboration.
may call on the learners past experience.
allow and encourage a variety of communication styles.

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 Theory of Learning
3. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and finetuned for
particular pedagogical purposes.
Tasks can be designed to facilitate the use and learning of

particular aspects of language.

Tasks provide a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target

language samples to learners and for the delivery of

comprehension and production opportunities of negotiable
difficulty.
Skehan (1998) suggested tasks can be designed along a cline of

difficulty so that learners can work on tasks that enable them to

develop both fluency and an awareness of language form.
He also proposed that tasks can be used to channel learners

toward particular aspects of language: Some aspect of the

discourse, accuracy, or fluency in the use of particular language
structures. 16
 Design
Objectives
To facilitate students language learning by engaging
them in a variety of tasks that provides them with abundant
opportunity to interact (Larsen-Freeman, 2000).
The objectives of TBLT also include the following:
To give learners confidence in trying out whatever

language they know.

To give learners experience of spontaneuos interaction.
To engage learners in using language purposefully.
To make learners participate in complete interaction, not

just one-off sentences.

To give learners chances to try out communication

strategies. (Willis, 1996)

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 The Syllabus
A conventional syllabus typically specifies the content
of a course from among these categories:
Language structures
Functions
Topics and themes
Macro-skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking)
Competencies
Text types
Vocabulary
Conventional syllabus is more concerned with learning

outcomes.

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 The Syllabus
Based on a needs analysis, a TBLT syllabus specifies the tasks
that should be carried out by learners within a program.
The difficulty of tasks is considered as a basis for the sequencing
of tasks,
TBLT syllabus is more concerned with the process of learning.
Nunan (1989) suggested that a syllabus might specify two types
of tasks:
1. Real-world tasks, which are designed to practice or rehearse
those tasks that are found to be important and useful in the real
world. For example, using the telephone.
2. Pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in
SLA theory and research but do not necessarily reflect real-
world tasks. For example, an information-gap task.

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 The Syllabus
Norris, Brown, Hudson, and Yoshioka (1998) provided
examples of representative real-world tasks grouped
according to themes.
Theme: Planning a vacation.

Tasks: Booking a flight, choosing a hotel, booking a room

Theme: Application to a university

Tasks: Applying to the university, corresponding with the

department chair, inquiring about financial support, selecting
the courses you want, registering by phone, paying fees, etc.

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 Learning & Teaching Activities
Types of Tasks

Willis (1996) proposed six task types built on more or

less traditional knowledge hierarchies:
1. Listing: Brainstorming, fact-finding
2. Ordering and sorting: Categorizing, ranking,
sequencing,
3. Comparing: Matching, finding similarities/differences
4. Problem solving: Analyzing real situations, reasoning,
decision making
5. Sharing personal experiences: Narrating, describing,
explaining attitudes and opinions
6. Creative tasks: Brainstorming, fact-finding, ordering
and sorting, comparing, problem solving
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 Types of Tasks According to the Type of Interaction

Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) classified tasks

according to the type of interaction to achieve the
accomplishment:
1. Jigsaw tasks: These involve learners combining
different pieces of information to form a whole. E.g.,
three individuals or groups may have three different
parts of a story and have to piece the story together.
2. Information-gap tasks: One student or group of
students has one set of information and another student
or group has a complementary set of information. They
must negotiate and find out what the other partys
information is in order to complete an activity.
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 Types of Tasks According to the Type of
Interaction

3. Problem-solving tasks: Students are given a problem

and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution
to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of
the outcome.
4. Decision-making tasks: Students are given a problem
for which there are a number of possible outcomes and
they must choose one through negotiation and
discussion.
5. Opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in
discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to
reach agreement.

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 Other Characteristics of Tasks
1. One-way or two-way: Whether the task involves a
one-way exchange of information or a two-way
exchange.
2. Convergent or divergent: Whether the students
achieve a common goal or several different goals.
3. Collaborative or competitive: Whether the students
collaborate to carry out a task or compete with each
other on a task.
4. Single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a
single outcome or many different outcomes are
possible.
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 Other Characteristics of Tasks
5. Concrete or abstract language: Whether the task
involves the use of concrete language or abstract
language.
6. Simple or complex processing: Whether the task
requires relatively simple or complex cognitive
processing.
7. Simple or complex language: Whether the linguistic
demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.
8. Reality-based or not reality-based: Whether the task
mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical
activity not found in the real world.
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 Learners Roles
Group participant
Monitor: Students needs to notice how language is used in
communication, focusing on the message in task work and the
form of language.
Risk-taker and innovator:
Some tasks will require learners to create and interpret

messages for which they lack full linguistic resources and

prior experience.
This may require students to practice in restating,

paraphrasing, using paralinguistic signals, etc.

Students may also need the skills of guessing from

linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification, and

consulting with other learners.

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 Teachers Roles
Selector and sequencer of tasks
Teacher selects, adapts, and/or creates the tasks and

then forms them into an instructional sequence, in

keeping with learner needs, interests, and language
skill level.
Preparing learners for tasks

Teacher prepare students for tasks through some

activities including topic introduction, clarifying task

instructions, helping students learn or recall useful
words and phrases and through providing partial
demonstration of task procedures.

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 Teachers Roles
Consciousness-raising
To acquire language through participating in tasks,

learners need to notice critical features of the

language they use and hear. This is referred to as
Focus on Form.
This can be achieved by employing a variety of

form-focusing techniques, including attention-

focusing pre-task activities, text exploration, guided
exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted
material.

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 What is Focus on Form?
Focus on form means drawing
students attention to linguistic elements as they
arise incidentally in lessons whose overrriding
focus is on meaning or communication.

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 Instructional Materials
1. Pedagogical Materials
Instructional materials play an important role in
TBLT because it depends on a sufficient supply of
appropriate classroom tasks.
Many contemporary language teaching texts cite
task-based activities.
Several teacher resource books contain representative
sets of sample task activities that can be adapted for a
variety of situations.
A number of task collections have also been put into
textbook form for students use: Some of these are in
more or less traditional text format, some are
multimedia, and some are published as task cards.
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 Instructional Materials
2. Realia
Realia such as popular media can be used in authentic
tasks wherever possible.
Newspapers: Students prepare a job-wanted ad. using

examples from the classified section.

Television: After watching an episode of an unknown

soap opera, students list the characters and their

possible relationship to other characters in the episode.
Internet: Students initiate a chat in a chat room,

indicating a current interest in their life and

developing an answer to the first three people to
respond.

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 Procedure
The Framework for TBLT

1. Pre-task
2. Task Cycle
a. Task
b. Planning

c. Report
3. The language focus
d. Analysis

e. Practice

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 1. Pre-task
( Including Topic & Task)

Teacher introduces the topic and task, helping students

to understand the theme and objectives of the task.
Teacher ensures that students understand task

instructions.
Teacher may highlight useful words and phrases.

Students spend some time to prepare for the

implementation of the task.

Students can hear a recording of a parallel task being

done.
If the task is based on a text, students read part of it.

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 2. Task Cycle
a. Task

Students do the the task in pairs/small groups. This

may be in response to reading a text or hearing a
recording.
Teacher walks round and monitors, encouraging
students to communicate in the target language.
Teacher helps students to formulate what they want
to say, but without intervening to correct errors of
form.
The emphasis is on spontaneous and confidence
building.

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 2. Task Cycle
b. Planning

Students prepare to report to the class how they did the

task and what they discovered/decided.
Students rehearse what they want to say or draft a
written version.
Teacher goes round to advise students on language.
Teacher helps students to rehearse oral reports or
organize written ones.
The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy,
as appropriate for a public presentation.
Individual students often take this chance to ask
questions about specific language items.

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 2. Task Cycle
c. Report

Some pairs/groups present their spoken reports or

circulate/display their written reports briefly so
everyone can compare findings.
Teacher chairs, gives feedback on the content and
form of the reports, but not overt public correction.
Teacher may play a recording of others doing the
same or similar task.
Students compare the ways in which they did the
task themselves.

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 3. Language Focus
Analysis: To raise students awareness of the language, teacher
sets some language-focused tasks, based on the texts students
have read or on the transcripts of the recordings they have heard.
Examples include the following:
Find words and phrases related to the title of the topic.
Find words ending in s or s, and say what the s means.
Find all the verbs in the simple past form.
Practice: Teacher conducts practice activities based on the
language analysis work already on the board, or using examples
from the text or transcript. Practice activities can include:
Choral repetition of the phrases.
Memory challenge games.
Matching the past-tense verbs with the subject or objects they

had in the text.

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 Advantages of TBLT
TBLT is applicable and suitable for all students of
different ages and backgrounds.
Students have much more varied exposure to language.
Students are free to use whatever vocabulary and

grammar they know.

TBLT helps students pay close attention to the

relationship between form and meaning.

It emphasizes meaning over form but it also caters for

learning form.
It allows meaningful and purposeful communication.

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 Advantages of TBLT
In TBLT, students are exposed to a whole range of
lexical phrases, collocations, and patterns as well as
language forms.
TBLT offers the opportunity for natural learning inside

the classroom.
It is motivating for learners.
It is compatible with a learner-centered educational

philosophy.
It can be used with other traditional approaches.

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 Disadvantages of TBLT
The preparation for a TBLT based lesson is very
demanding.
TBLT requires a high level of creativity from teachers

to prepare appropriate tasks for students levels.

There is a risk for learners to achieve fluency at the

expense of accuracy.
TBLT requires resources beyond textbooks.
It requires individual and group responsibilty and

commitment on the part of students.

It is less effective for the systematic teaching of new

language.

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 Disadvantages of TBLT
It is difficult to find out materials for task-based
teaching; therefore, teachers should prepare their own
materials.
Task-based learning is more effective at intermediate

levels and beyond, but not at beginner levels.

Evaluation of task-based learning can be difficult.

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 Conclusion
TBLT depends on tasks as the primary source of
pedagogical input in teaching and the absence of a
systematic grammatical or other type of syllabus
that characterizes current versions of TBLT, and that
distinguishes it from the use of tasks in CBLT.
Many aspects of TBLT still have to be justified such

as task type, task sequencing, and evaluation of task

performance.
The basic assumption of TBLT that it provides for a

more effective basis for teaching than other language

teaching approaches remains in the domain of
ideology rather than fact.
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 Main References
Ellis, R. (1992). Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Honeyfield, J. (1993). Responding to task difficulty. In M. Tickoo (Ed.),
Simplification: Theory and Practice. Singapore: Regional Language Center.
127138.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Piryana, J. (2006). Task-based Language Instruction.
Richards, J. & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language
teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based
instruction. Applied Linguistics 17(1), 3861.
Willis, J. (1996). A flexible framework for task-based learning. In J. Willis
and D. Willis (Eds.), Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford:
Heinemann. 5262.

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