Week # 9

MR Chapter 7
Tutorial #9
MR #7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, MARTIN RHODES (2008)
7.5, 7.6. Introduction to Particle
Technology, 2nd Edition.
To be discussed on Publisher John Wiley & Son,
March 22, 2017. Chichester, West Sussex,
By either volunteer or England.
class list.
 Fluidization
Fundamentals
When a fluid is passed upwards through a bed of
particles the pressure loss in the fluid due to frictional
resistance increases with increasing fluid flow
A point is reached when the upward drag force exerted by
the fluid on the particles is equal to the apparent weight of
particles in the bed
At this point the particles are lifted by the fluid, the
separation of the particles increases and the bed
becomes fluidized
The force balance across the fluidized bed dictates that
the fluid pressure loss across the bed of particles is equal
to the apparent weight of the particles per unit area of the
bed
 For a bed of particles of density p, fluidized by a fluid of
density f to form a bed of depth H and voidage in a
vessel of cross-sectional area A

Plot of fluid pressure loss across the bed vs superficial

fluid velocity through the bed:
 OA is the packed bed region
Solid particles do not move relative to one another
and their separation is constant
Pressure loss vs fluid velocity relationship is
described by the Carman-Kozeny equation and the
Ergun equation
BC is the fluidized bed region
At point A, pressure loss rises above the value
predicted
This rise is more marked in small vessels and in
powders which have been compacted to some
extent before the test
Associated with the extra force required to
overcome wall friction and adhesive forces between
bed and distributor
 Superficial fluid velocity at which the packed bed becomes a
fluidized bed is known as the minimum fluidization velocity,
Umf
Sometimes referred to as the velocity at incipient fluidization
Umf increases with particle size and particle density and is
affected by fluid properties
To derive expression for Umf, equate expression for pressure
loss in a fluidized bed with pressure loss across a packed bed
Applying the Ergun equation,
 Where Ar is the dimensionless number known as the
Archimedes number

And Remf is the Reynolds number at incipient fluidization

In order to obtain a value of Umf, we need to know the

voidage of the bed at incipient fluidization, = mf
 A typical value of mf is 0.4

Wen and Yu (1966) produced an empirical correlation for

Umf

This correlation is valid for spheres in the range 0.01 <

Remf < 1000 and is often expressed in the form:

For gas fluidization, the Wen and Yu correlation is often

taken as most suitable for particles larger than 100 m
The correlation of Baeyens and Geldart (1974) is best for
particles less than 100 m
Relevant Powder and Particle Properties
The correct density for use in fluidization equations is the
particle density
Defined as the mass of a particle divided by its
hydrodynamic volume
Volume seen by the fluid in its fluid dynamic interaction
with the particle
Includes the volume of all open and closed pores

Bed density is also used in connection with fluidized

beds
 Another density often used is the bulk density, defined in
a similar way to fluid bed density

The most appropriate particle size to use in equations

relating to fluid-particle interactions is a hydrodynamic
diameter
For use in fluidization applications, starting from a sieve
analysis the mean size of the powder is often calculated
from

Where xi is the arithmetic mean of adjacent sieves

between which a mass fraction mi is collected
Bubbling and Non-bubbling Fluidization
Beyond the minimum fluidization velocity bubbles or
particle-free voids may appear in the fluidized bed

At superficial velocities above the minimum fluidization

velocity, fluidization may in general be either bubbling or
non-bubbling
Some combinations of fluid and particles give rise to only
bubbling fluidization and some combinations give only non-
bubbling fluidization
 Most liquid fluidized systems do not give rise to bubbling

Gas fluidized systems give either only bubbling

fluidization or non-bubbling fluidization beginning at Umf,
followed by bubbling fluidization as fluidizing velocity
increases
Non-bubbling fluidization is also known as particulate or
homogeneous fluidization
Bubbling fluidization is often referred to as aggregative
or heterogeneous fluidization
Classification of Powders
Geldart (1973) classified powders
into four groups according to their
fluidization properties at ambient
conditions
The Geldart classification of
powders is now used widely in all
fields of powder technology
Group A powders which when
fluidized by air at ambient conditions
give a region of non-bubbling
fluidization beginning at Umf,
followed by bubbling fluidization as
fluidizing velocity increases
Group B powders which under
these conditions give only bubbling
fluidization
Group C powders which are very
fine, cohesive and are incapable of
fluidization
Group D large particles
distinguished by their ability to
produce deep spouting beds
 Since the range of gas velocities over which non-
bubbling fluidization occurs in Group A powders is small,
bubbling fluidization is the type most commonly
encountered in gas fluidized systems in commercial use
The superficial gas velocity at which bubbles first appear
is known as the minimum bubbling velocity Umb
Premature bubbling can be caused by poor distributor
design or protuberances inside the bed
Abrahamsen and Geldart (1980) correlated the
maximum values of Umb with gas and particle properties
using the following correlation

Where F is the fraction of powder less than 45 m

 In Group A powders, Umb > Umf
Bubbles are constantly splitting and coalescing and a
maximum stable bubble size is achieved
This makes for good quality, smooth fluidization

In Groups B and D powders, Umb = Umf

Bubbles continue to grow, never achieving a maximum
size
This makes for rather poor quality fluidization associated
with large pressure fluctuations
 In Group C powders, the
interparticle forces are large
compared with the inertial
forces on the particles
Particles are unable to achieve
the separation required to be
totally supported by drag and
buoyancy forces
True fluidization does not
occur
Bubbles do not appear, instead
the gas flow forms channels
through the powder
Since the particles are not fully
supported by the gas, pressure
loss across the bed is always
less than apparent weight of
the bed per unit cross-
sectional area
 When the size of the bubbles is greater than about one-
third of the diameter of the equipment their rise velocity
is controlled by the equipment and they become slugs of
gas
Slugging is attended by large pressure fluctuations and
so it is generally avoided in large units since it can cause
vibration to the plant
Slugging is unlikely to occur at any velocity if the bed is
sufficiently shallow
Slugging will not occur provided the following criterion is
satisfied:

If the bed is deeper than this critical height, then slugging

will occur when the gas velocity exceeds Ums:
Entrainment
The term entrainment describes the ejection of particles from
the surface of a bubbling bed and their removal from the
vessel in the fluidizing gas
Other terms such as carryover and elutriation are often used
Entrainment of particles in an upward-flowing gas stream is a
complex process
Rate of entrainment and size distribution of entrained particles
will in general depend on particle size and density, gas
properties, gas velocity, gas flow regime and vessel diameter
Prediction of entrainment from first principles is not possible
and in practice an empirical approach must be adopted
Define coarse particles as particles whose terminal velocities
are greater than the superficial gas velocity (UT > U)
Fine particles are particles which UT < U
 Region above fluidized bed
surface is considered to be
composed of several zones
Freeboard region between
the bed surface and gas outlet
Splash zone region just
above the bed surface in which
coarse particles fall back down
Disengagement zone region
above the splash zone in
which the upward flux and
suspension concentration of
fine particles decreases with
increasing height
Dilute-phase transport zone
region above the
disengagement zone in which
all particles are carried
upwards, particle flux and
suspension concentration are
constant with height
 Transport disengagement height (TDH) height from the
bed surface to the top of the disengagement zone
Above TDH the entrainment flux and concentration of
particles is constant
From design point of view, in order to gain maximum
benefit from the effect of gravity in the freeboard, gas
exit should be placed above TDH
Many empirical correlations for TDH are available in the
literature

Where dbvs is the equivalent volume diameter of a bubble

at the surface
 Empirical estimation of entrainment rates from fluidized
beds

Where Kih* is the elutriation rate constant (the

entrainment flux at height h above the bed surface for
the solids of size xi, when mBi = 1.0), MB is the total mass
of solids in the bed, A is the area of bed surface and m Bi
is the fraction of the bed mass with size xi at time t
For continuous operation, mBi and MB are constant

The solids loading of size xi in the off-gases is

The total solids loading of the gas leaving the freeboard
is
 For batch operation, the rates of entrainment of each
size range, the total entrainment rate and the particle
size distribution of the bed change with time

Where (mBiMB) is the mass of solids in size range i

entrained in time increment t

Mass of solids remaining in the bed at time

Where subscript t refers to the value at time t

Solution of a batch entrainment problem proceeds by

sequential application of above equations for required
time period
 The elutriation rate constant Kih* cannot be predicted
from first principles
Correlations are usually in terms of the carryover rate
above TDH, Ki*
For particles > 100 m and U > 1.2 m/s

For particles < 100 m and U < 1.2 m/s

Applications of Fluidized Beds
Physical processes include
drying, mixing, granulation,
coating, heating and cooling
These processes take
advantage of the excellent
mixing capabilities of the
fluidized bed
One of the most important
applications is to the drying of
solids
Fluidized beds are often used
to cool particulate solids
following a reaction
Cooling may be by fluidizing
air alone or by use of cooling
water passing through tubes
immersed in the bed
 Gas fluidized bed is also a
good medium to carry out a
chemical reaction involving a
gas and a solid
Gas-solid contacting is
generally good
Excellent solids circulation
within the bed promotes good
heat transfer between bed
particles and fluidizing gas and
between the bed and heat
transfer surfaces immersed in
the bed
Gives rise to near isothermal
conditions even when
reactions are strongly
exothermic or endothermic
Good heat transfer gives rise
to ease of control of the
reaction
Fluidity of the bed makes for
ease of removal of solids from
reactor