1

Transport of particulate solids in the presence of a gas.

Pneumatic Transport (Pneumatic Conveying)
A gas to transport a particulate solid through a pipeline.
Standpipe
Transferring solids downwards from a vessel at low
pressure to a vessel at a higher pressure.

Gases have been used successfully in industry to

transport a wide range of particulate solids

Most pneumatic transport was done in dilute suspension

using large volumes of air at high velocity

There has been increasing interest in the so-called

dense phase mode of transport in which the solid
particles are not fully suspended

Advantage of dense phase transport is low air

requirements

Generally means a lower energy requirement

Resulting low solids velocities mean that product

degradation by attrition and pipeline erosion are not major
problems

Dense phase flow is characterized by low gas velocities

(1 5 m/s), high solids concentrations (> 30% by
volume) and high pressure drops per unit length of pipe
(> 20 mbar/m)
Particles are not fully suspended and there is much
interaction between particles
Boundary between dilute and dense phase flow is not
clear cut and there are no universally accepted
definitions
Here, choking and saltation velocities will be used to
mark the boundaries between dilute and dense phase
transport in vertical and horizontal pipelines respectively

DILUTE PHASE AND DENSE PHASE TRANSPORT

Pneumatic transport of particulate solids is classified
into: dilute (or lean) phase flow and dense phase flow
Dilute phase flow is characterized by high gas velocities
(> 20 m/s), low solids concentrations (< 1% by volume)
and low pressure drops per unit length of transport line
(< 5 mbar/m)
Dilute phase pneumatic transport is limited to short
route, continuous transport of solids at rates of less than
10 t/h
Only system capable of operation under negative
pressure
Solid particles behave as individuals, fully suspended in
the gas
Fluid-particle forces dominate

Choking Velocity in Vertical Transport

Pressure drop across a length of transport line has, in
general, six components
Pressure drop due to gas acceleration, particle
acceleration, gas-to-pipe friction, solid-to-pipe friction,
static head of solids, static head of gas

 Line AB represents the frictional

pressure loss due to gas only in a
vertical transport line

In region DE, the decreasing velocity

causes a rapid increase in solids
concentration

Curve CDE is for solids flux of G1

A point is reached when the gas can no

longer entrain all the solids

Curve FG is for a higher feed rate G2

At point C, gas velocity is high, concentration is low and
frictional resistance between gas and pipe wall
predominates
As gas velocity is decreased, frictional resistance
decreases but, since concentration of the suspension
increases, static head required to support these solids
increases
If gas velocity is decreased below point D then increase
in static head outweighs decrease in frictional resistance
and p/L rises again.

Choking velocity marks the boundary

between dilute and dense phase
vertical pneumatic transport
Choking can be reached by decreasing
gas velocity at constant solids flow
rate, or by increasing solids flow rate at
constant gas velocity

At this point, a flowing slugging fluidized

bed is formed in the transport line
The phenomenon is known as choking and usually shows
large pressure fluctuations
The choking velocity, UCH, is the lowest velocity at which this
dilute phase transport line can be operated at solids feed
rate G1
At the higher solids feed rate, G2, the choking velocity is
higher

It is not possible to theoretically predict the conditions for

choking to occur
Correlations for predicting choking velocities are
available

where CH is the voidage in the pipe

UCH is choking velocity,
p is the particle density,
f is the gas density,
G is the mass flux of solids (=Mp/A) and
UT is the free fall or terminal velocity of a single particle in the gas

Saltation Velocity in Horizontal Transport

General relationship between gas velocity and pressure
gradient for horizontal transport line is in many ways
similar to that for vertical transport

Line AB represents the curve obtained for gas only in the

line
CDEF for a solids flux G1 and curve GH for a higher
solids feed rate G2

At point C, gas velocity is sufficiently

high to carry all solids in very dilute
suspension
Solid particles are prevented from
settling to the walls of the pipe by
turbulent eddies generated in the
flowing gas
If gas velocity is reduced while solids feed rate is kept constant,
frictional resistance and p/L decrease
Solids move more slowly and solids concentration increases
At point D, gas velocity is insufficient to maintain the solids in
suspension and solids begin to settle out in the bottom of the
pipe
Gas velocity at which this occurs is termed the saltation
velocity
Further decrease in gas velocity results in rapid salting out of
solids and rapid increase in p/L as the area available for flow
of gas is restricted by settled solids

In the region E and F some solids

may move in dense phase flow
along the bottom of the pipe while
others travel in dilute phase flow
in the gas in the upper part of the
pipe
Saltation velocity marks the
boundary between dilute and
dense phase flow in horizontal
pneumatic transport
As with vertical pneumatic transport, it is not possible to
theoretically predict the conditions under which saltation will
occur
Correlations for predicting saltation velocity are available

Usalt is the superficial gas velocity at saltation when the mass flow
rate of solids is Mp, the pipe diameter is D and the particle size is
x

Fundamentals

Superficial velocity (continued)

Gas and Particles Velocities

Actual gas velocity

Superficial velocity for gas and solids (particles) are defined

as:

Actual particle velocity

Superficial velocities are related to actual velocities by the equations:

where subscript s denotes superficial and subscripts f and p refer to fluid

and particles respectively

Fraction of pipe cross-sectional area available for flow of

gas is usually assumed to be equal to the volume
fraction occupied by gas (the voidage or void fraction )
Fraction of pipe area available for flow of solids is therefore
(1 )

Continuity
Consider a length of transport pipe into which are fed
particles and gas at mass flow rates of Mp and Mf
respectively
Continuity equations for particles and gas are:
Combining these continuity equations gives an expression
for ratio of mass flow rates, known as the solids loading:

This shows that the average voidage , at a particular

position along the length of the pipe, is a function of the
solids loading and the magnitudes of the gas and solids
velocities for given gas and particle density

Relative velocity between particle and fluid Urel:

This velocity is often also referred to as the slip velocity Uslip

Pressure Drop
To obtain an expression for total pressure drop along a
section of transport line, we will write down the
momentum equation for a section of pipe
Consider a section of pipe of cross-sectional area A and
length L inclined to the horizontal at an angle and
carrying a suspension of voidage

 Momentum balance equation is:

where Ffw and Fpw are the gas-to-wall friction force and solids-to-wall
friction force per unit volume of pipe respectively

Design for Dilute Phase Transport

Gas Velocity
In both horizontal and vertical dilute phase transport, it is
desirable to operate at the lowest possible velocity in
order to minimize frictional pressure loss, reduce attrition
and reduce running loss
For a particular pipe size and solids flow rate, saltation
velocity is always higher than choking velocity
Therefore, in a transport system comprising both vertical
and horizontal lines, gas velocity must be selected to
avoid saltation
In this way choking will also be avoided

Rearranging and integrating assuming constant gas density

and voidage:

Total pressure drop along a straight length of pipe carrying

solids in dilute phase transport is made up of a number of
terms:
(1) pressure drop due to gas acceleration
(2) pressure drop due to particle acceleration
(3) pressure drop due to gas-to-wall friction
(4) pressure drop related to solids-to-wall friction
(5) pressure drop due to the static head of solids
(6) pressure drop due to the static head of gas

Usalt and UCH cannot be predicted with confidence and

conservative design is necessary
Bearing in mind the uncertainty in correlations for
predicting choking and saltation velocities, safety
margins of 50% and greater are recommended when
selecting the operating gas velocity

Pipeline Pressure Drop

In dilute transport, gas-to-wall friction is often assumed
independent of the presence of solids and so friction factor
for the gas may be used
For vertical transport

Above analysis assumes that particles lose momentum

by collision with pipe walls
Pressure loss due to solids-wall friction is the gas
pressure loss as a result of re-accelerating the solids
Drag force on a single particle is given by:
If the void fraction is , then the number of particles per
unit volume of pipe NV is

For horizontal transport

or

Therefore the force exerted by the gas on the particles in

unit volume of pipe FV is

where
and

CD is the drag coefficient between particle and gas

Bends
Bends complicate the design of pneumatic dilute phase
transport systems
When designing a transport system it is best to use as
few bends as possible
Bends increase the pressure drop in a line and also are
the points of most serious erosion and particle attrition
Solids normally in suspension in straight, horizontal or
vertical pipes tend to salt out at bends due to centrifugal
force encountered while travelling around the bend
Because of this operation, the particles slow down and
are then re-entrained and re-accelerated after they pass
through the bend, resulting in the higher pressure drops
associated with bends

This is equal to the solids-wall friction force per unit

volume of pipe, Fpw

Bends (Continued)

There is greater tendency for particles to salt out in a

horizontal pipe which is preceded by a downflowing vertical
to horizontal bend than in any other configuration
It is possible for solids to remain on the bottom of the pipe
for very long distances following the bend before they
redisperse
Blinded tees can be used in place of elbows in pneumatic
transport systems

Blinded tees can be used in place of elbows in pneumatic transport

systems
A cushion of stagnant particles collects in the blinded or unused
branch of the tee
The conveyed particles then impinge upon the stagnant particles in
the tee rather than on the metal surface
Service life of the blinded tee configuration is far better than any
other configurations tested
Service life 15 times greater than that of radius bends or elbows due
to the cushioning accumulation of particles in the blind branch of the
tee.
In industrial practice, bend pressure drop is often approximated by
assuming that it is equivalent to approximately 7.5 m of vertical
section pressure drop

Discontinuous dense phase flow can be divided into:

Discrete plug flow in which discrete plugs of solids occupy
the full pipe cross-section
Dune flow in which a layer of solids settled at the bottom of
the pipe move along in the form of rolling dunes
A hybrid of discrete plug flow and dune flow in which rolling
dunes completely fill the pipe cross-section but in which there
are not discrete plugs (also known as plug flow)

Dense Phase Transport

Dense phase transport is described as the condition in
which solids are conveyed such that they are not entirely
suspended in the gas
Transition point between dilute and dense phase
transport is saltation for horizontal transport and choking
for vertical transport
However, even within the dense phase regime a number
of different flow patterns occur in both horizontal and
vertical transport
Continuous dense phase flow pattern in which the solids
occupy the entire pipe is extrusion
Transport in this form requires very high gas pressures
and is limited to short straight pipe lengths and granular
materials which have a high permeability

Saltating flow is encountered at gas velocities just below the

saltation velocity
Particles are conveyed in suspension above a layer of settled
solids
Particles may be deposited and re-entrained from this layer
As the gas velocity is decreased the thickness of the layer of
settled solids increases and eventually form dune flow
Main advantages of dense phase transport arise from the low
gas requirements and low solids velocities
Low gas volume requirements generally mean low energy
requirements per kg of product conveyed
Also mean that smaller pipelines and recovery and solids-gas
separation required
Low solids velocities means that abrasive and friable
materials may be conveyed without major pipeline erosion or
product degradation
Design of commercial dense phase systems is largely
empirically based