GENERAL CHEMISTRY

AREA 1

CHEMISTRY
study of matter

MATTER
anything that occupies space and has
mass

composition
structure
changes that matter undergoes
energy involved in such changes or
interactions

MASS

refers to the amount of

matter present in the
material

WEIGHT
Mass x pull of gravity

Units of Measurement
Fundamental
Quantity

SI unit

Length

Meter (m)

Mass

Kilogram (kg)

Time

Seconds (sec)

Temperature

Kelvin (K)

Temperature Conversion
C = (F-32) x 5/9
F = (C x 9/5) + 32
K = C + 273
-40 = only temperature where C and
F are the same

Classification of
Matter

ELEMENT

simplest form of matter, 1 kind

of material or atom

COMPOUND

substance composed of two or

more elements united
chemically in definite
proportion

MIXTURE
composed of 2 or more
substances that are not
chemically combined

Classification of
Mixture

According to the Nature of Particles

Homogenous - one phase

(solution)
Heterogenous - more than
one phase

According to the Size of Particles

Solution - uniform mixture, composed of
solute and solvent
Suspension - aka Coarse Mixture, finely
divided solid materials distributed in a
liquid (eg. antibiotic)
Colloid - particle of solute are not broken
down to the size of the molecules but are
small enough to remain suspended and
evenly dispersed throughout the medium
(eg. mayonnaise, ketchup)

Properties of Colloid
Tyndall Effect
Brownian Movement

Process of Separating Mixtures

Decantation - difference in specific gravity
or density
Distillation - evaporation and then
condensation
Evaporation
Magnetic Separation
Filtration - use of filter paper
Sorting - mechanical separation

 Centrifugation - speeding up of
settling process of a precipitate
Fractional Crystallization - lowering
of temperature so that the more
insoluble component crystallizes out
first
Chromatography - differenc in
solvent affinity

Properties of Matter
Intrinsic/ Intensive - INDEPENDENT
of mass or amount
Eg. density, specific gravity, melting
point

Extrinsic/ Extensive - DEPENDENT

on mass
Eg. weight, volume, pressure, heat
content

Changes that Matter Undergoes

Physical - change in phase

Chemical - change in both
intrinsic and extrinsic
properties

Evidences of Chemical Change

Evolution of a gas
Formation of a precipitate
Emission of light
Generation of electricity
Production of mechanical energy
Absorption/liberation of heat

Types of Chemical Reaction

Direct Union/ Synthesis

Decomposition/ Analysis
Single Replacement
Double Displacement

Processes Involved in
Chemical Change

OXIDATION

chemical union of oxygen

with another substance
loss of H+, gain of O-2
increase in oxidation state
2 Mg + O2 --> 2 MgO

REDUCTION

Oxygen is removed from a

compound or H is added
decrease in oxidation state

NEUTRALIZATION
acid reacts with a base to form
salt and water
HCl + NaOH --> NaCl + H2O

HYDROLYSIS

reaction of water on a salt

forming an acid and base

SAPONIFICATION

a reaction between an alkali

and fats/oils forming soap
and glycerol

FERMENTATION

action of bacteria/
microorganisms on organic
substances resulting to the
production of alcohol

NUCLEAR CHANGE
change in the structure,
properties, composition of the
nucleus of an atom resulting in
the transmutation of the
element into another element

 Nuclear FISSION - splitting of a

heavy atom
Nuclear FUSION - union of 2 light
atoms to form a bigger molecule

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

DEMOCRITUS

matter is made up of small

indivisible particles
coined "atomos"

JOHN DALTON

Matter is made up of atoms

All atoms of a given element are alike.
Atoms enter into combination with other
atoms to form compounds but remain
unchanged during ordinary chemical
reaction.
Atoms can combine into simple numerical
ratios

 "Billiard ball model" - atom is a

hard indestructible sphere
Disproved: subatomic particles

Law of Definite Proportion

when forming compounds,

their composition/ proportion
is always definite

J.J. THOMSON
Model: "raisin bread or plum
pudding model"

Rutherford Gold Film Experiment

99% passed
<1% deflected
Proposal:
atom is mostly an empty space
most of its mass and (+) particles
are concentrated in the nucleus

NIEL BOHR MODEL

Planetary model

ERWIN SCHRODINGER
"Electron cloud" - electrons move
in a 3D structure (orbitals)

ION

charged atom
cation (+)
anion (-)

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

number of protons
# of protons = # of electrons

MASS NUMBER (A)

protons + neutrons

ISOTOPES

same number of protons but

different number of neutrons

ISOBAR

same mass number but

different element (different
proton)

ISOTONES

same neutrons but

different element

ALLOTROPISM

the property of existing in

two or more conditions
which are distinct in their
physical or chemical
relation.

ALLOTROPE

atoms of different elements

can link together in different
ways to form substances with
different properties

ORBITALS
region in space where the
probability of finding an
electron is greatest

QUANTUM
NUMBERS

PRINCIPAL (n)

Main energy level

Values: 1, 2, 3 (positive
integer)
Function: determine the size of
the particle

AZIMUTHAL/ ANGULAR
Symbol:
Values: 0 to (n-1)
Function: subshell or sublevel
determines the shape (spherical,
principal, dumbell, four-leaf clover)

MAGNETIC

Symbol: m or ml
Values: -1 to +1
Function: orbitals, determine
the orientation

SPIN

Symbol: s or ms
Values: -1/2 or + 1/2
Function: direction of the spin
or rotation

PRINCIPLES

Pauli's Exclusion Principle

No 2 electrons can have the same
set of 4 quantum numbers
Each atomic orbital can only
accomodate 2 electrons
Ex: 1s2

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

It is impossible to determine
simultaneously the momentum
and position of an electron.

Aufbau Building Up Principle

lower energy levels are filled

up first

Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

orbitals are filled up singly

before pairing up

PERIODIC TABLE

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

First true periodic table

Johann Dobereiner
Triads
Ex: Li, Na, K
Ba, Ca, Sr
S, Se, Te
Cl, Br, I

Newlands
Law of octaves

Meyer & Mendeleev

physical and chemical properties
are periodic functions of their
atomic weights

Henry Moseley
elements are arranged
based on atomic numbers

PERIOD

Horizontal row
indicates the highest energy
shell that the electrons of an
atom occupy

Family A

Representative elements
Occupy:
S block: Group IA-IIA
P block: Group IIIA to VIIIA

Family B

Transition elements
Occupy:
D block: Transition metals
F block: Rare earth metals

PERIODIC
TRENDS

Atomic Radius/ Atomic Size

1/2 the distance between 2

nuclei
Left to right decreases
Top to bottom increases

Electronegativity

Ability to attract electrons

Left to right increases
Top to bottom decreases

Ionization Energy

Ionization potential
Ability to remove an electron from
a positively charged atom
Left to right increases
Top to bottom decreases

Electron Affinity

Property to accept an electron

Left to right increases
Top to bottom decreases

Kinematic Molecular Theory

explains the phases of matter

based on the movement of
(including direction) molecules,
ions or atoms

 SOLID - definite shape, size &

volume
LIQUID - follows shape of
container, definite volume
GASES - indefinite shape and
volume

SOLUTIONS

homogenous mixture single

phase system of two or
more substances

Types of Solutions According to the

Solubility of the Solute

Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated

Factors Affecting Solubility

Nature of solute & solvent
"like dissolves like"
Solubility - maximum amount of
solute expressed in grams that can be
dissolved in 100g of water.
Miscibility - ability of one substance
to mix with another substance

 Temperature - the solubility of a gas

in a liquid decreases with increase in
temperature
Exothermic: solubility decreases with
increase in temp
Endothermic: solubility increases with
increase in temp

 Pressure - affects gases only

Henry's Law: the solubility of a
gas increases as pressure
increases
Ex: carbonated drinks

 Particle Size/ Surface Area

decreases particle size,
increase surface area,
increase solubility

 Presence of Salts
Salting-Out: presence of salt
decreases solubility
Salting-In: presence of salt
increases solubility

Methods of Expressing
Concentration
of
Solutions
Percent Solution

% by mass
% by volume
% mass/volume
ppm (parts per million)
proof

Mole (n) = grams

MW

 mole fraction (x) = moles of substance

total moles of sol'n

 Molarity (M)
Molality (m)
Formality (F)
Normality (N)

GAS LAWS

Boyle's Law

volume is inversely
proportional to pressure
P1V1 = P2V2

Charles' Law

volume is directly proportional

to temperature (kelvin)
V1 = V2
T1

T2

Gay-Lussac's Law

pressure is directly
proportional to temperature, if
V is constant
P1 = P2
T1

T2

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

states that the pressure exerted by a
mixture of gases (non-reacting gases)
is the sum of the partial pressures
that each gas in the mixture exert
individually
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 ....

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT

P = Pressure
V = Volume
n = no. of moles
R = gas constant
T = Temperature

Graham's Law

The rate of effusion of 2 gases

are inversely proportional to the
square roots of their densities
providing the temperature and
pressure are the same for the 2
gases

DIFFUSION

gradual mixing of molecules of

one gas with the molecules of
another gas by virtue of their
kinetic properties

EFFUSION
passage of gas under
pressure through a small
opening

COLLIGATIVE
PROPERTIES

 property of solution which

depends on the number of
solute particles dissolved in
a solvent

Vapor Pressure Lowering

the addition of a non-volatile solute lowers
the VP of the liquid
a liquid in a closed container will establish an
equilibrium with its vapor
when equilibrium is reached, the vapor exerts
a pressure (vapor pressure)
volatile - exhibits VP
nonvolatile - no measurable VP

RAOULT'S LAW

lowering of a vapor pressure of a

solvent is equal to the product of the
mole fraction of the solute and vapor
pressure of the solvent

VP = (x) (VP of solvent)

Boiling Point Elevation

Boiling Point - equilibrium between
the liquid and the gas, point at which
the VP equals atmospheric pressure

BP = kfm
kf = 0.52C/m

Freezing Point Depression

presence of salt/solute will cause
lowering of freezing point

FP = kfm
kf = 1.86C/m

Osmotic Pressure

pressure needed to prevent

osmosis
Osmosis - net movement of
solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane from a
more dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution

Van't
Hoff
governs osmosis
= MRT
= osmotic pressure
M = molarity
R = gas constant
T = temp

ACIDS & BASES

Electrolytes

allow conductance of electricity

Weak Electrolytes: incomplete
dissolution
Strong Electrolytes: strong acids
& bases, complete dissolution

Non-Electrolytes
will not dissociate
will not conduct
electricity

Acid/Base Theory
Theory

Acid

Base

Arrhenius

yields H+

yields OH-

BronstedLowry

proton
donor

proton
acceptor

Lewis

electron
pair
acceptor

electron
pair donor

ACIDS

sour taste
Litmus: blue to red
aqueous solution conducts electricity
reacts with metal to produce hydrogen
reacts with carbonate and bicarbonate to
produce carbon dioxide
turns colorless with phenolphthalein
turns pink/red with methyl orange TS

Most Common Strong Acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3,

HClO3, HClO4, H2SO4

BASES

bitter taste
litmus: red to blue
aqueous solutions conduct electricity
feel slippery
pink/violet color with phenolphthalein
yellow with methyl orange

Most Common Strong Bases

NaOH
KOH
Ca(OH)2

NEUTRALIZATION

Acid + Base = Salt & Water

TITRATION

process of progressive
addition of a solution of known
concentration to a substance
of unknown concentration

INDICATOR

susbtance that changes

color at the end point

Theoretical Point

also known as Stoichiometric

point or neutralization point
point when equal amounts of acid
and base have reacted
non-observable

END
POINT
experimental approximate
observable

pH

pH = - log [H+]
pH = 7 neutral
pH < 7 acidic
pH > 7 basic
pH is equal to pKa at half-neutralization
point

Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

pH = pKa + log [salt]

acid
pKw = 14
pKw = pH + pOH

BUFFERS

substances which resist

changes in pH upon
addition of an acid or alkali

BUFFER PAIRS

Weak acid and some salt of

weak acid
Weak base and some salt of
a weak base

BUFFER CAPACITY
Van Slyke
degree or magnitude of
capability to resist change in
pH of the buffer

THERMOCHEMISTRY

HEAT (q)

an energy transfer due to

temperature difference

WORK
(w)
a form of energy transfer between
a system and its surroundings in
the form of compression or
expansion of the gas

INTERNAL ENERGY (U)

the total energy attributed to the
particles of matter and and their
interactions within a system,
composed of thermal and
chemical energy

ENTHALPY (H)
energy of a reaction

ENTROPY (S)

degree of disorderliness

HEAT CAPACITY (c)

the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of an
object or substance by one
degree

Chemical Reactions
Endothermic Process reaction wherein heat is
absorbed by the system,
indicated by a (+) change in
enthalpy

 Exothermic Process - a
reaction wherein heat is
released by the system,
indicated by a (-) change in
enthalpy

NonSpontaneou
Spontaneou
s
s
-H

+H

+S

-S