Preliminary Chemistry Final Exam Notes 2005

METALS
8.3.2
Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
Active Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen (NB: Active metals are Li, Na, K, Ca & Ba)
Metal + Water Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
(NB: Metals are Mg, Al, Zn & Fe)
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
(NB: Cu, Ag, Hg, Pt, Au do not react with acid)
Oxidation is the loss of electrons
Reduction is the gain of electrons
Oxidation reaction and Reduction reactions together make a redox reaction
When a metal is oxidised it becomes a reducing agent
When a metal is reduced it becomes an oxidising agent
Metal Reactivity and the Periodic Table:
- most reactive metals in group 1
- next most reactive metals in group 2
- metals of moderate activity lie at the edge of the metal zone of Periodic Table
- least reactive metals located in lower central region of transition metals
- In groups 1 and 2, reactivity increases from top to bottom
Ionisation energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom of the
element.
The reactivity of metals increases as their ionisation energy decreases
Reactive metals have low ionisation energy
Less reactive metals have higher ionisation energy
8.3.3
Models of atomic structure:
John Dalton: Atoms with no substructure

J.J Thompson: Plum pudding model. Positively charged sphere with negative electrons embedded
within it. The total positive charge is equal to total negative charge.

Ernest Rutherford: Nuclear model consisting small positive central nucleus containing protons and
electrons orbit the nucleus.

Niels Bohr: Electrons exist in energy shells.

+n

Erwin Schrdinger: mechanical model of atoms. Uncertainty principle says electrons appear as a cloud
surrounding the nucleus. Distribution depends on probability principles. Areas of high and low density.

+n

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

History of periodic table:

Lavoisier Classified elements as metals and non metals. Explained concept of combustion. Stated
law of mass conservation.
Davy Discovered sodium, potassium, and calcium by molten salt electrolysis.
Dobereiner Observed physical and chemical similarities of groups of three elements (triads).
Chancourtis Developed a vertical, helical periodic table.
Newlands Classified the known elements into octaves in order of their atomic weight,
Meyer - Tabulated valency as a function of atomic weight and produced a 56 element periodic table.
Mendeleev - predicted the elements undiscovered at the time and left gap for them. He proposed the
periodic law and a workable periodic table based on increasing atomic weights.
Ramsay Discovered the noble gases.
Moseley Proposed the atomic number (Z) as the fundamental distinguishing property of each
element. Periodic law related in terms of Z.
Trends in periodic table:
Across periods:
Large
Atomic radius
Small
Low

Ionisation energy

High

Low

Electro negativity

High

High

Electrical conductivity

Low

Low

Melting/Boiling points
High

Very Low

Valency
4

Down groups:
Small

Atomic
Radius

Large

High

Ionisation
Energy

Low

High

Electro negativity

Low

Low

High

Low

High

Electrical Melting/Boiling Reactivity Reactivity

Conductivity
Points
Group 1 or 2 Group 7

High

Low

High

Low

8.3.4
A mole is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (i.e. 6.022 x 10 23)
Moles = mass/molar mass (n = m/M)
Dalton assumed that gas elements existed as single atoms that could not be split.
1 volume + 1 volume 1 volume
Gay-Lussac Law of Combining Volumes of Gases Under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure, the volumes of reacting gases and of their gaseous products are expressed in ratios of small
whole numbers. 1 volume + 1 volume 2 volumes
Avogadros Hypothesis: Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules. He proposed that gaseous elements were NOT single
atoms but made of 2 or more atoms. He called these molecules.
Avogadros Law Under same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain
the same number of molecules

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

Hydrogen + Chlorine
Hydrogen Chloride
Reaction
1 volume + 1 volume
2 volumes
Gay Lussac
1 molecule + 1 molecule 2 molecules
Avogadro
H2 + Cl2
2HCl
Avogadro
Empirical formula is simplest whole number ratio of numbers of atoms in each element whereas
molecular formula specifies actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
8.3.5
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with a definite range of composition and structure
Ores are naturally occurring deposits or a mixture of minerals from which a substance (usually a metal)
is economically viable to be extracted
Ores come from the ground through natural geological development and once they are used for
extraction, they are unable to be reused for the same purpose thus ores are non-renewable
Extraction of copper from ore chalcopyrite:
1. Crush into smaller pieces
2. Concentrate ore by froth flotation
3. Roasting/Smelting the ore with sand to remove iron as a silicate slag, leaving Cu2S
2CuFeS2 + 50 2 2Cu + 2FeO + 4SO2
FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3
4. Purify copper by electrolysis
Steps in recycling aluminium:
1. Magnetism to remove ferrous material
2. Melted in a furnace to process into a alloy depending on the type of metallic properties needed
3. Cast and processed into ingots and sent to manufacturers
WATER
8.4.1
Solvent substance which dissolves other substances which makes up majority of a solution
Solute a substance that is dissolved which makes up a minority of a solution
Solution a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent
Water is the most widely used solvent both by humans and by nature. Water dissolves nutrients from
the soil and carries them in solution to living cells.
Zone of the Earth
Water Present as
% of the zone that is water
Atmosphere
Vapour or tiny liquid droplets
0.5 5%
Hydrosphere
Liquid (with other substances dissolved in it)
> 95% in oceans, > 99% in polar
icecaps and rivers
Lithosphere
As ground water and chemically bound as
< 10% (though in terms of mass
water of crystallisation in many minerals
quantity it probably has more
water than hydrosphere)
Living matter
Liquid (with other substances dissolved in it)
Between 60 90% overall
Water is a necessity for all types of living matter as a raw material solvent in which life processes
occur, a transport medium for bringing nutrients to cells, carrying waste products, a thermal regulator
Water is also a habitat for fish, algae and bacteria with less fluctuation in temperature
Water is the major weathering and eroding agent of the earth
Water is a natural resource for humans to drink, prepare food with, wash in, recreation etc
8.4.2
Molecular shape
Molecular structure

Water
Bent
H OH

Melting point (C)

Boiling point (C)

0 (fairly high)
100 (fairly high)

Ammonia
Pyramidal
HNH
|
H
-78 (low)
-33 (low)

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

Hydrogen sulfide
Bent
HSH

-66 (low)
-60 (low)

There are three types of intermolecular forces:

1. Dispersion forces happens in non polar molecules where a very weak temporary dipole holds the
molecules together
2. Dipole Dipole occurs in polar molecules where a net dipole charge attracts other molecules via
opposing electrostatic forces
3. Hydrogen Bonding an especially strong dipole-dipole attraction involving hydrogen
Surface Tension molecules on the surface of liquid water have an overall attractive force downwards
by the neighbouring molecules below them into the rest of the liquid. Since the hydrogen bonding of
these attractive forces is strong, water has high surface tension
Viscosity the strong attractive forces between the water molecules suggest that it has high viscosity
The strong attractive forces between water molecules are hard to break and require high amounts of
energy to break them which accounts for waters unusually high melting/boiling point

8.4.3
A soluble ionic compound breaks up into individual ions when dissolved in water as the anions attract
the positive hydrogen components of water and the cations attract the negative oxygen component of
water and this overcomes the electrostatic force between ionic compounds
When a soluble molecular element or compound dissolves in water, they disperse throughout the
solvent and break up at a molecular level only when the hydrogen bonds are strong enough to break the
intermolecular forces between the soluble molecular compound
A covalent network substance or large molecule would not dissolve in water or have an extremely low
solubility in water since the intermolecular forces are at a higher magnitude with proportion to the
molecular size/weight
Like dissolves like is a general rule to describe the relationship between the polar nature of water and
its solubility
8.4.4
Solubility Rules:
All ammonium (NH4+) compounds and Group I cations are soluble
All nitrates and ethanoates are soluble
All chlorides, bromides, iodides are soluble (except Ag, Pb)
All sulfates soluble (except Ag, Pb, Ba, Ca)
All Carbonates, phosphates are insoluble (except NH4+, Ba, Ca, Group I)
All hydroxides insoluble (except NH4+, Ba, Ca, Group I)
All sulfides (S -2) insoluble (except Na+, K+, NH4+)
Dissociation dissolving and breaking up of ions or solid ionic crystal going into solution
Association putting ions back together or aqueous ions going into solid ionic crystals
Net ionic equations trace the movement of ions when precipitations reactions occur in solutions
A saturated solution is one in which no more of the solute can be dissolved at the specific temperature
In a saturated dissolution ions continue to break away and go into solution but an equal number pair
and precipitate out after the dynamic equilibrium
Molarity of a solution is the number of moles per litre (C = n/v or C1V 1 = C2V 2)
Different measurements of concentration are important because each serve a particular purpose and
these different measurements relate to the size and magnitude of the solutes in solutions
8.4.5
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to increase the
temperature of that substance by 1 degree
The specific heat capacity of water is relatively high compared to other molecular substances
H = -mct
Where:
H = heat energy released (J)
m = mass (g)
c = specific heat capacity (J/K/g)
t = change in temperature (C)

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

When a reaction occurs in solution the system includes what is reacting and the surroundings are
the water if it is not in reaction. If we measure the change in temperature of the water and we
know waters specific heat capacity we can calculate the energy change or enthalpy
If dissolution releases heat it is exothermic e.g.
NaOH(s) -> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) H= -44.5 kJ mol-1
If dissolution absorbs heat it is endothermic e.g.
NH4NO3(s) -> NH4+ (aq) + NO 3- (aq) H= 25.7 kJ mol-1
Waters ability to absorb large quantities of heat resulting in small temperature increase allows it
to minimise fluctuations in temperature as well as moderates climate in coastal areas
Thermal pollution is the release of excess heat into a body of water
If a body of water is affected by thermal pollution, aquatic wildlife would not survive because
there is less oxygen dissolved in the water thus their metabolism and nutrient needs increase
ENERGY
8.5.1
Almost all life on Earth is dependant on the ability of autotrophic organisms to transfer light energy
into chemical energy through photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide + water glucose and oxygen
The light energy is transformed into chemical energy stored in the glucose molecules which get
converted into high energy carbohydrates. This energy is made available to animals when they eat
these carbohydrates through respiration: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
Plants and animals die and decay however they may be buried beneath sediment before complete
decomposition takes place remains contain substantial amounts of carbon and hydrogen which become
fossil fuels over millions of years with high temperatures and pressure. The energy in these come form
the initial solar energy from plants
8.5.2
Diamond: hard, high melting/boiling point, carbon bonded everywhere in an infinite array
Graphite: brittle, lubricant, conductor, high melting/boiling point, carbon bonded in hexagonal layers
Buckminsterfullerene: superconductor, high melting/boiling point, carbon bonded in hexagonal
soccer ball in a Bucky ball
Because carbon can make single, double or triple bond with itself and it has a relatively high electro
negativity there are a large number of carbon compounds. A homologous series refers to a family of
carbon compounds to which a general molecular formula can be applied
8.5.3
Crude oil contains a complex mixture of compound mainly hydrocarbons C1 to C40 using a fractioning
tower as vapor rises and passes through coll water trays it condenses the higher boiling point
hydrocarbons so in order we get bitumen, paraffin wax, lubricating oils, fuel & diesel oil, kerosene,
petrol and gas
1 = Meth
2 = Eth 3 = Prop 4 = But 5 = Pent 6 = Hex 7 = Hept 8 = Oct
Alkanes are tetrahedral, alkenes are planar, alkynes are linear
Alkanes are saturated because it is not possible to attach more hydrogens since the carbon atoms are
fully bonded
Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated because it is possible to attach more hydrogens by breaking
double or triple bonds
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula
Volatility = Melting/boiling point
Volatility = Melting/boiling point
The less dispersion forces there are, or smaller the molecular size/weight, the higher the volatility
Hydrocarbon fuels are highly flammable and there is a constant risk of explosion. C1 to C8
hydrocarbons are highly flammable and must be stored & transported so vapours can not build up to
make an explosive mixture. They must be in cool well ventilated areas. When transporting in trucks,
trucks are earthed to stop static electricity build up and only minimum quantities are stored
Ignition temperature minimum temperature at which a fuel\air mixture spontaneously combusts
Flash point lowest temperature enough vapour to make an explosive mixture is produced.

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

8.5.5
Slow combustion (i.e. burning wood) occurs when there is a large amount of fuel and limited oxygen,
spontaneous combustion (i.e. burning methane) occurs when there is an excess of oxygen and
explosive combustion occurs when a substance is heated into gas and sparked
The collision theory requires for a collision to lead to a chemical reaction that molecules must collide
with sufficient energy and in an orientation suitable to break and reform bonds. This means that higher
activation energy will give a slower reaction rate as more collisions are required
Increasing concentration increases rate molecules collide
Surface area increase means more molecules exposed to collision so higher reaction rate
Higher temperature means molecules are faster means more collisions means faster rate
q = mct
Where:
q = amount of heat released or absorbed (J)
m = mass (g)
c = specific heat capacity (J/K/g)
t = change in temperature (C)
Heat released per mole = (total heat released) / (number of moles reacted)
Endothermic = step up diagram
Exothermic = step down diagram
Kinetic energy increases with temperature
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that reactant molecules must possess in order to
form products
Catalysts speed up a chemical reaction without becoming consumed in the actual reaction
Examples of industrial catalysts are:
- Manganese oxide in decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
- Iron in synthesis of ammonia
- Vanadium pentoxide in synthesis of sulfuric acid
- Zeolite compounds of silicon, aluminium, oxygen, sulfuric acid etc in catalytic cracking
Catalysts reduce the activation energy required to break the chemical bonds
Activation Energy
without catalyst
Activation Energy
with catalyst

Energy
Change in enthalpy
H

Progress of reaction

Homogenous catalysts work throughout the bulk of the reaction mixture

Heterogenous catalysts provide a surface on which the reaction occurs more rapidly than it does in the
bulk of the reaction mixture
Biological catalysts are called enzymes which often contains proteins

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com