Stimulated Emission Devices Lasers- P

rinciples and Applications

Teng Shao-Yun

Introduction

The laser is perhaps the most important opti

cal device to be developed in the past 50 yea
rs. The word laser is an acronym that stand
s for light amplification by the stimulated e
mission of radiation. The key words here are
amplification and stimulated emission . A
laser system converts pump energy into int
ense, highly directional, nearly monochr
omatic, electromagnetic wave energy .

Albert Einstein
Arthur Schawlow
Ali Javan
Charles Townes
Theodore Maiman

Albert Einstein laid the theoretical foundation of laser action as e

arly as 1916, when he was the first to predict the existence of a rad
iative process called stimulated emission . His theoretical work, ho
wever, remained largely unexploited until 1954, when Charles Tow
nes developed a microwave amplifier based on stimulated emissio
n of radiation. It was called a maser . Shortly thereafter, in 1958, Ar
thur Schawlow and Charles Townes adapted the principle of ma
sers to light in the visible region, and 1960, Theodore Maiman bu
ilt the first laser device, the ruby laser. Within months of the arriv
al of ruby laser, Ali Javan developed the first gas laser, the heliu
m-neon laser. The ruby laser emits a deep red light at a waveleng

Stimulated Emission

Stimulated emission is the process by which an incoming photon of a specific fr

equency can interact with an excited atomic electron (or other excited molecul
ar state), causing it to drop to a lower energy level. The liberated energy transfe
rs to the electromagnetic field, creating a new photon with a phase, frequency,
polarization, and direction of travel that are all identical the photons of the inci
dent wave. This is in contrast to spontaneous emission, which occurs at rando
m intervals without regard to the ambient electromagnetic field.
The process is identical in form to atomic absorption in which the energy of an
absorbed photon causes an identical but opposite atomic transition: from the l
ower level to a higher energy level. In normal media at thermal equilibrium, ab
sorption exceeds stimulated emission because there are more electrons in the
lower energy states than in the higher energy states. However, when a populati
on inversion is present the rate of stimulated emission exceeds that of absorpti
on, and a net optical amplification can be achieved. Such a gain medium, along
with an optical resonator, is at the heart of a laser or maser. Lacking a feedback
mechanism, laser amplifiers and superluminescent sources also function on th
e basis of stimulated emission.

When an electron absorbs energy either from light or heat, it recei

ves that incident quantum of energy. But transitions are only allo
wed between discrete energy levels such as the two shown above.
This leads to emission lines and absorption lines.
When an electron is excited from a lower to a higher energy level,
it will not stay that way forever. An electron in an excited state ma
y decay to a lower energy state which is not occupied, according t
o a particular time constant characterizing that transition. When s
uch an electron decays without external influence, emitting a phot
on, that is called "spontaneous emission". The phase and directio
n associated with the photon that is emitted is random. A material
with many atoms in such an excited state may thus result in radiat
ion which has a narrow spectrum (centered around one wavelengt
h of light), but the individual photons would have no common pha
se relationship and would also emanate in random directions. Thi
s is the mechanism of fluorescence and thermal emission.

An external electromagnetic field at a frequency associated with a t

ransition can affect the quantum mechanical state of the atom wit
hout being absorbed. As the electron in the atom makes a transitio
n between two stationary states (neither of which shows a dipole fi
eld), it enters a transition state which does have a dipole field, and
which acts like a small electric dipole, and this dipole oscillates at a
characteristic frequency. In response to the external electric field a
t this frequency, the probability of the electron entering this transit
ion state is greatly increased. Thus, the rate of transitions between
two stationary states is increased beyond that of spontaneous emi
ssion. A transition from the higher to a lower energy state produce
s an additional photon with the same phase and direction as the in
cident photon; this is the process of stimulated emission .

Mathematical model

If the atom is in the excited state, it may decay into the lower state
by the process of spontaneous emission, releasing the difference i
n energies between the two states as a photon. The photon will ha
ve frequency and energy h, given by:
if the excited-state atom is perturbed by an electric field of frequency, it m
ay emit an additional photon of the same frequency and in phase, thus au
gmenting the external field, leaving the atom in the lower energy state. Thi
s process is known asstimulated emission. In a group of such atoms, if t
he number of atoms in the excited state is given by N2 . At the same time, t
here will be a process of atomic absorption whichremovesenergy from th
e field while raising electrons from the lower state to the upper state. We c
an get two equcation:
Thus absorption and stimulated emission are reverse processes proceedin
g at somewhat different rates. Another way of viewing this is to look at the
netstimulated emission or absorption viewing it as a single process. The n
et rate of transitions from E2to E1due to this combined process can be fou
nd by adding their respective rates, given above:

Thus a net power is released into the electric field equal to the pho
ton energyh times this net transition rate. In order for this to be
a positive number, indicating net stimulated emission, there must
be more atoms in the excited state than in the lower level:
Otherwise there is net absorption and the power of the wave is red
uced during passage through the medium. The special condition
is known as a population inversion, a rather unusual co
ndition that must be effected in the gain medium of a laser.
The notable characteristic of stimulated emission compared to eve
ryday light sources (which depend on spontaneous emission) is tha
t the emitted photons have the same frequency, phase, polarizatio
n, and direction of propagation as the incident photons. The photo
ns involved are thus mutually coherent. When a population inversi
on (\Delta N > 0 ) is present, therefore, optical amplification of inci
dent radiation will take place.

Population Inversion

Population inversion occurs while a system exists in a state in which

more members of the system are in higher, excited states than in lo
wer, unexcited energy states. It is called an "inversion" because in m
any familiar and commonly encountered physical systems, this is not
possible. The concept is of fundamental importance in laser science
because the production of a population inversion is a necessary step
in the workings of a standard laser.
A population inversion is required for laser operation, but cannot be
achieved in our theoretical group of atoms with two energy-levels w
hen they are in thermal equilibrium. In fact, any method by which th
e atoms are directly and continuously excited from the ground state
to the excited state (such as optical absorption) will eventually reach
equilibrium with the de-exciting processes of spontaneous and stim
ulated emission. At best, an equal population of the two states, N1 =
N2 = N/2, can be achieved, resulting in optical transparency but no n
et optical gain.

Three-level lasers

The system of atoms is at thermal equilibrium, and the major

ity of the atoms will be in the ground state, i.e.,N1N,N2
N3 0. If we now subject the atoms to light of a frequenc
y
the process of optical absorption will excite the atoms from t
he ground state to level 3. This process is calledpumping, an
d does not necessarily always directly involve light absorptio
n; other methods of exciting the laser medium, such as electr
ical discharge or chemical reactions, may be used. The level 3
is sometimes referred to as thepump levelorpump band, a
nd the energy transitionE1E3as thepump transition.

If we continuously pump the atoms, we will excite an appreciable number

of them into level 3, such that N3 > 0. To have a medium suitable for laser
operation, it is necessary that these excited atoms quickly decay to level 2.
The energy released in this transition may be emitted as a photon, howeve
r in practice the 32 transition is usually radiationless, with the energy bei
ng transferred to vibrational motion of the host material surrounding the a
toms, without the generation of a photon.
An atom in level 2 may decay by spontaneous emission to the ground state
, releasing a photon of frequency12. If the lifetime of this transition, 21is
much longer than the lifetime of the radiationless 3 2 transition 32, the
population of theE3will be essentially zero and a population of excited sta
te atoms will accumulate in level 2. If over half the Natoms can be accumu
lated in this state, this will exceed the population of the ground state N1. A
population inversion has thus been achieved between level 1 and 2, and o
ptical amplification at the frequency 21can be obtained.
Because at least half the population of atoms must be excited from the gro
und state to obtain a population inversion, the laser medium must be very
strongly pumped. This makes three-level lasers rather inefficient, despite b
eing the first type of laser to be. A three-level system could also have a radi
ative transition between level 3 and 2, and a non-radiative transition betwe
en 2 and 1. In this case, the pumping requirements are weaker.

Four-level lasers

the pumping transitionPexcites the atoms in the ground state int

o the pump band . From level 4, the atoms again decay by a fast, n
on-radiative transitionRainto the level 3. Since the lifetime of the l
aser transitionLis long compared to that ofRa(32 43), a popula
tion accumulates in level 3, which may relax by spontaneous or sti
mulated emission into level 2. This level likewise has a fast, non-ra
diative decayRbinto the ground state.

The presence of a fast, radiationless decay transition results in the

population of the pump band being quickly depleted ( N4 0). In a
4-level system, any atom in the lower laser level E2is also quickly d
e-excited, leading to a negligible population in that state ( N2 0). T
his is important, since any appreciable population accumulating in l
evel 3, the upper laser level, will form a population inversion with r
espect to level 2. That is, as long asN3> 0, then N3>N2, and a popul
ation inversion is achieved. Thus optical amplification, and laser op
eration, can take place at a frequency of 32(E3-E2=h32).
Since only a few atoms must be excited into the upper laser level to
form a population inversion, a 4-level laser is much more efficient t
han a 3-level one, and most practical lasers are of this type. In realit
y, many more than four energy levels may be involved in the laser p
rocess, with complex excitation and relaxation processes involved b
etween these levels. In particular, the pump band may consist of se
veral distinct energy levels, or a continuum of levels, which allow op
tical pumping of the medium over a wide range of wavelengths.

Laser pumping

Laser pumping is the act of energy transfer from

an external source into the gain medium of a lase
r. The energy is absorbed in the medium, produci
ng excited states in its atoms. When the number
of particles in one excited state exceeds the num
ber of particles in the ground state or a less-excit
ed state, population inversion is achieved. In this
condition, the mechanism of stimulated emission
can take place and the medium can act as a laser
or an optical amplifier. The pump power must be
higher than the lasing threshold of the laser.

Optical Resonator (Cavity)

An optical cavity is an arrangement of mirrors that forms a

standing wave cavity resonator for light waves. Optical cavi
ties are a major component of lasers, surrounding the gain
medium and providing feedback of the laser light. They are
also used in optical parametric oscillators and some interf
erometers. Light confined in the cavity reflects multiple ti
mes producing standing waves for certain resonance frequ
encies. The standing wave patterns produced are called m
odes; longitudinal modes differ only in frequency while tra
nsverse modes differ for different frequencies and have dif
ferent intensity patterns across the cross section of the be
am.
Optical cavities are designed to have a large Q factor. A be
am will reflect a very large number of times with little atte
nuation. Therefore the frequency line width of the beam is
very small indeed compared to the frequency of the laser.

Stability

Only certain ranges of values for R1, R2, a

nd L produce stable resonators in which p
eriodic refocussing of the intracavity bea
m is produced. If the cavity is unstable, th
e beam size will grow without limit, event
ually growing larger than the size of the c
avity mirrors and being lost. By using met
hods such as ray transfer matrix analysis,
it is possible to calculate a stability criteri
on:
Values which satisfy the inequality
correspond to stable resonators.

The stability can be shown graphically by defining a stab

ility parameter,gfor each mirror:

Plottingg1againstg2as shown.
Areas bounded by the
lineg1g2= 1 and the axes are
stable. Cavities at points
exactly on the line are
marginally stable; small
variations in cavity length can
cause the resonator to become
unstable, and so lasers using
these cavities are in practice
often operated just inside the
stability line.

Temporal coherence

Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlatio

n between the value of a wave and itself delayed by , at any
pair of times. Temporal coherence tells us how monochroma
tic a source is. In other words, it characterizes how well a wa
ve can interfere with itself at a different time. The delay over
which the phase or amplitude wanders by a significant amou
nt is defined as the coherence time c. At a delay of =0 the d
egree of coherence is perfect, whereas it drops significantly a
s the delay passes =c. The coherence length Lc is defined as
the distance the wave travels in time c

Spatial coherence

In some systems, such as water waves or optics,

wave-like states can extend over one or two dime
nsions. Spatial coherence describes the ability for
two points in space, x1 and x2, in the extent of a
wave to interfere, when averaged over time. Mor
e precisely, the spatial coherence is the cross-cor
relation between two points in a wave for all time
s. If a wave has only 1 value of amplitude over an
infinite length, it is perfectly spatially coherent. T
he range of separation between the two points o
ver which there is significant interference is calle
d the coherence area.This is the relevant type of c
oherence for the Young's double-slit interferomet
er. It is also used in optical imaging systems and
particularly in various types of astronomy telesco
pes. Sometimes people also use "spatial coheren
ce" to refer to the visibility when a wave-like state
is combined with a spatially shifted copy of itself.

Applications in Science

A wide variety ofinterferometrictechniques

Raman spectroscopy
Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy
Atmosphericremote sensing
Investigatingnonlinear opticsphenomena
Holographictechniques employing lasers also contribute to a numbe
r of measurement techniques.
Laser basedlidartechnology has application ingeology,seismology,
remote sensing andatmospheric physics.
Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in theCassini-Huyg
ensmission.
In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificiallaser guide st
ars, used as reference objects foradaptive opticstelescopes.

Lunar laser ranging : When the Apollo astronauts

visited the moon, they plantedretroreflectorarrays
to make possible theLunar Laser Ranging
Experiment. Laser beams are focused through
largetelescopeson Earth aimed toward the arrays,
and the time taken for the beam to be reflected back
to Earth measured to determine the distance
between the Earth and Moon with high accuracy.
Photochemistry : Some laser systems, through
the process of mode locking, can produce
extremely brief pulses of light - as short as
picoseconds or femtoseconds. Such pulses can
be used to initiate and analyze chemical
reactions, a technique known as photochemistry.
The short pulses can be used to probe the
process of the reaction at a very high temporal
resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived
intermediate molecules. This method is
particularly useful in biochemistry, where it is

Laser scanner : A barcode reader is an electronic

device that can read and output printed barcodes to a
computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light
source, a lens and a light sensor translating optical
impulses into electrical ones. Additionally, nearly all
barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analyzing the
barcode's image data provided by the sensor and
sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output
port.

Applications in Military
Pulsed Energy Projectile : Pulsed Energy Projectile or
PEP systems emit an infrared laser pulse which creates
rapidly expanding plasma at the target. The resulting
sound, shock and electromagnetic waves stun the target
and cause pain and temporary paralysis. The weapon is
under development and is intended as a non-lethal
weapon in crowd control.
Electrolaser : An electrolaser lets ionization occur, and
then sends a powerful electric current down the
conducting ionized track of plasma so formed, somewhat
like lightning. It functions as a giant high energy longdistance version of the Taser or stun gun.

Laser sight : The laser has in most

firearms applications been used as a
tool to enhance the targeting of
other weapon systems. For example,
a laser sight is a small, usually
visible-light laser placed on a
handgun or a rifle and aligned to
emit a beam parallel to the barrel.
Since a laser beam has low
divergence, the laser light appears
as a small spot even at long
distances; the user places the spot
on the desired target and the barrel
of the gun is aligned

Applications in Medical
Cosmetic surgery : removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks,
sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks, and hairs.
Laser scalpel : General surgery, gynecological, urology,
laparoscopic

References

Introduction to Optics Third Edition Frank L

Pedrotti

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser

http://www.lasertech.tw/index.php

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applicat
ions
http://lsyt.net/%E5%8C%BB%E7%94%9F%E4%
B8%8E%E7%97%85%E4%BA%BA%E5%8D%A1%E9%80
%9A%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87/
http://www.dianliwenmi.com/postimg_49007.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_medicine