LASER

LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Properties or characteristics of Laser and comparison with ordinary Light

 Monochromatic: it means it consists of single wavelength whereas all common light sources emit
light of many different wavelength.
 Coherent: it means all individual waves are moving precisely together through time and space i.e.
they are in phase.
 Directionality: laser emits light only in one direction whereas the conventional source emits light
in all directions.
 High intensity: the intensity of the laser beam stays nearly constant with distance whereas the
intensity of light from a conventional source decreases rapidly with distance.

Interaction of radiation with matter-Quantum mechanical view

An atom can move from one energy to another when it receive or releases energy an amount of energy
equal to the energy difference between those two energy states. Let us take energy E1 (lower state) and E2
(excited state). As the constituent atoms of the medium are identical. The energy states E1 and E2 will be
common to all atoms in the medium.
Let a monochromatic radiation of frequency ( ) be incident on the medium. The radiation may be viewed
as a stream of photons, each photon carrying an energy h . If h =E2-E1; the interaction of radiation with
atoms leads to the three processes.

 Absorption of radiation.
 Spontaneous emission of radiation.
 Stimulated emission of radiation.

Absorption of radiation:
An atom residing in the lower energy state E1 may absorb the incident photon and jump to the excited
state E2. This transition is known as absorption of radiation or induced emission of radiation.
A+ h *
Spontaneous emission of radiation:
Excited state with higher energy is highly unstable because of a natural tendency of atoms to be in the
lowest energy state. Therefore excited atoms do not stay in the excited state for a longer time but tend to
return to the lower state by giving up the excess energy h =E2-E1 in the form of spontaneous emission.
The excited atom in the state E2 may return to the lower state E1 on its own in order to attain minimum
potential energy is called spontaneous emission. During this process the excess energy is released as a
photon of energy h =E2-E1.
A* A+ h

Stimulated emission of radiation:

Here in this process a photon of energy h =E2-E1 can induce the excited atom to make a downward
transition releasing the energy in the form of a photon. Thus the interaction of a photon with an excited
atom triggers the excited atom to drop to the lower energy state giving up a photon. This phenomenon of
forced emission of photons is called induced emission or stimulated emission.
A* A+ 2h
The existence of this mechanism was predicted by Einstein in 1916.
The process of stimulated emission is characterized by some interesting features.
 The emitted photon is identical to the incident photon in all respects. It has the same frequency as
incident photon. It will be in phase with the incident photon .Both the photons travels in the same
direction.
 The process is controllable from outside.
 The most important feature is that multiplication of photons takes place in the process.one photon
induces an atom to emit a second photon, these two travelling along the same direction de-excite
two atoms in their path producing a total of four photons which in turn stimulate four atoms
generating eight photons and so on.

Multiplication of photons
 Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission

1. Spontaneous emission can take place Stimulated emission can take place only between
between any two normal energy levels. two energy levels where upper level is metastable.

2. Metastable state is not required. Metastable state is required.

3. Photons emitted by this process are not Photons emitted by this process are highly
monochromatic. monochromatic.
Since they are having different energies. Since all of them are having same energy hν.
4. Photons are highly incoherent. Photons are highly coherent.
5. Photons are not unidirectional. Photons are highly unidirectional.
6. Power output is low. Power output is very high.

Metastable State: an atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally excited
atoms have short lifetimes and release their energy in a matter of nanoseconds (10-9s) through
spontaneous emission. It means that atoms do not stay long enough at the excited state to be stimulated.in
order to have stimulated emission, it is necessary that the excited state has a longer lifetime. A metastable
state is such a state atoms excited to the metastable states remain excited for an appreciable time, which is
of the order of 10-6s to 10-3s. This is 103s to106s times the lifetimes of the ordinary energy levels.
Therefore the metastable state allows accumulation of a large number of excited atoms at that level. It
would be impossible to create the state of population inversion without a metastable state.
Note: there could be no population inversion and hence no laser action, if metastable states do not exist.

Population inversion: in the state of thermal the number of atoms in the ground state (lower level) is
greater than the number of atoms in the excited state. But in order to achieve stimulated emission there
should be more number of atoms in the excited state than in the ground state. Therefore a non-
equilibrium state has to be produced artificially in which the population of upper level exceeds to a larger
extent the population of lower level. When this situation occurs the population distribution between the
two levels is said to be inverted. This condition is called population inversion.

Pumping: for creating and maintain the condition of population inversion, the atoms have to be raised
continuously to excited state. It requires energy to be supplied to the system. The atoms will absorb
requisite amount of energy and go from the lower to higher level. The process of transferring energy to
the medium with a view to transfer it into the state of population inversion is known as pumping.
There are number of technique for pumping a collection of atoms to an inverted state. Most commonly
used are optical pumping, electrical pumping etc. This technique of pumping depends on the type of laser
active medium employed. For example solid state lasers usually employ optical pumping from high
energy xenon lamps. Gas lasers use electrical discharge through the gas medium.
Three main components of laser and laser action:
1. Active medium /gain medium
2. Pump source
3. Optical resonator

Active medium: a medium in which light gets amplified is called active medium. The medium may be a
crystal, solid, liquid or gas. The material should be of controlled purity, size and shape and should have
the suitable energy levels to support population inversion. Out of the different atoms in the medium, only
a small fraction of atoms of a particular species are responsible for stimulated emission and consequent
light amplification. They are called active centers. The remaining bulk of the medium plays the role of
host and supports active centers.

Pump source: the pump source is the part that provides energy to the active medium to create the
condition of population inversion.

Optical resonator: an optical resonator consists of two opposing plane parallel mirrors, with the active
medium placed in between them to provide feedback of the light. One of the mirrors is partially reflecting
and the other is completely reflecting. The mirrors are set normal to optic axis of the medium. optical
resonator plays a very important role in the generation of laser output, in providing high directionality to
the laser beam as well as producing gain in the active medium to overcome losses.
Initially the active medium is in ground state. Through suitable pumping mechanism the material is taken
into a state of population inversion. In the beginning of the lasing action (as the condition of N2>N1 is
reached) the spontaneous photons are emitted which act as stimulating photons then both (spontaneous
and stimulated) of them function as stimulating photons and more number of photons are emitted. But all
these emitted photons pass through the medium in scattered way, to make them travel in specific direction
two mirrors are fixed at the end of the medium. The mirrors direct the photons back and forth through the
medium many times. And every time as they pass to and fro in the medium, many more stimulated
photons are produced. Photons emitted in any direction other than parallel to the axis of laser will pass out
of the sides of the resonator and are lost. The photons spend enough time in the medium causing to de-
excite the many atoms. This increases the intensity of the laser beam.as the laser beam builds up enough
intensity it emerges out of the partially reflecting mirror as an intense beam.
Einstein’s Relation For Laser Action:-
Einstein showed that the parameter describing absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission
are related.
A system in thermal equilibrium, the rate of upward transition (E1to E2) must be equal to the downward
transition (E2to E1).
N1 = number of atoms /unit volume at energy level E1
N2 = number of atoms /unit volume at energy level E2
ρν =Energy density of photon at frequency ν.
Upward transition i.e. absorption rate → N1 ρνB12

Downward transition i.e. spontaneous emission rate → N2 A21

(Does not depend on photon density)
Stimulated Emission rate → N2 ρνB21
(Depend on photon density)
According to Einstein’s Relation at thermal equilibrium

Total upward transition = Total downward transition

N1 ρνB12 = N2 ρνB21 + N2 A21

N1 ρνB12 - N2 ρνB21 = N2 A21

ρν (N1 B12 – N2 B21) = N2 A21

 ρν = ------------------------------(1)

Where B12, A21, B21 → Einstein’s Coefficients.

Dividing numerator & Denominator by N2 B21

⁄
ρν = ------------------------(2)
( )

Now from Boltzmann’s Equation Statistics distribution of atom in different energy level

--------------------- (3)

Now using equation (3) in equation (2)

⁄
ρν = -----------------------(4)
( )

From Planck’s Law radiation density at a particular frequency

ρν = ----------------- (5)
( )

Now comparing equation (4) & (5) we get Einstein’s Coefficient as follows

& ----------------- (6)

Which is known as Einstein’s Relation.

From this we found that

 When degeneracy of two states are equal, probability of absorption(B12) and stimulated emission
(B21) are equal.
 It also gave the ratio of stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous emission rate from equation
(4)
= ρν = ----------(7)
( )

thus if one wants to amplify light by stimulated emission, then rate of stimulated emission will be greater
than the absorption and spontaneous emission.

To increase that rate of stimulated emission (B21),one must increase ρν and N2. So in order to create the
situation for laser action. One must create a condition in which N2>N1 i.e. population inversion must be
achieved without that laser action is not possible. Which is basic principle behind laser.
TYPES OF LASERS
Ruby Laser
Construction
Ruby laser is made from a single cylindrical crystal of ruby whose ends are flat and one of the ends is
completely silvered and the other end is partially silvered.
Flash lamp is filled with xenon gas was connected to a capacitor, which was charged to a few kilovolts.
The energy stored in the capacitor was discharged through the xenon lamp in few milliseconds. It is called
optical pumping because it is given by light energy.

Ruby consists of alluminium oxide (Al2O3) with some of the alluminium ions (Al+3 ) replaced by
chromium ions(Cr+3 ). These chromium ions are the active centers in the ruby laser. The ruby crystal
consists of about 0.05% of chromium.

Experimental setup of Ruby Laser Energy level Diagram

Working
Ruby laser is a three level laser .when xenon lamp is switch on chromium ion in its ground state can
absorb energy from the xenon lamp and make transition to E3 level. The E3 level being unstable they
immediately make a non-radiative transition(energy is given to the crystal) to the metastable state (M)
and since the metastable state has a very long life time the number of atoms in this state keep on
increasing and one may achieve a population inversion between the state M and E1. Once population
inversion is achieved light amplification i.e. laser action can take place by any spontaneously emitted
photon.
Chromium ions decay from metastable state (M) to ground state (G) emitting laser light of wavelength
6943A0 .this light can be made to pass again and again through a ruby rod using mirrors at its ends and
gets amplified. Ruby laser is also called solid state laser because of solid ruby rod.in ruby laser optical
pumping is not continuous. It is in the form of pulses because the xenon lamp does not operate
continuously. Laser output is also in the form of strong pulses of very short duration. Due to that it is also
called as pulsed laser. The power output is this solid state laser is 10KW.
Helium Neon laser
Construction
He-Ne laser is a gas laser where gases act as an active medium. In gas laser optical pumping is not
suitable. Gas lasers are usually excited through electrical pumping or gas discharge. Gas lasers usually
employ a mixture of two gases.

Experimental setup of helium-Neon Laser Energy level Diagram

The schematic diagram of He-Ne laser is as shown in figure. It consists of a long discharge tube of length
about 50cm and diameter 1cm. the tube is filled with a mixture of helium and neon gases in the ratio 10:1.
Electrodes are provided to produce a discharge in the gas and they are connected to a high voltage power
supply. At the end of the tube two mirrors are fixed, one fully reflecting and other partly reflective.

Working
Helium neon laser is a four level laser. When the power is switched on there is a discharge of electrons
through the gas mixture. The accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to
different higher energy state which is known as electrical pumping or gas discharge. Some of the helium
atoms are excited to the levels F2 and F3, which are the metastable states, so the helium atoms excited to
those levels spend a long time before getting de-excited. Thus a large number of helium atoms will be
accumulated in the states F2 and F3.
Now some of the excited states of neon E6 and E4 corresponds approximately to the same energy as the
excited energy level F2 and F3 of helium. So when excited helium atoms from metastable states F2, F3
collide with unexcited neon atoms, an energy exchange takes place. The neon atoms are thus raised
directly to the levels E4 and E6 and helium atom will be de-excited to the ground state. Because of the
metastable nature of F2 and F3 level of helium atom, discharge through the gas mixture continuously
populates the neon atom, excited to the energy levels E4 and E6 directly. This helps to create population
inversion between levels E6 and E4 and the lower lying levels E5 and E3 in neon. Hence once population
inversion has been achieved, any spontaneously emitted photon can trigger laser action.

The transition from E6 to E5 lead to emission of laser radiation of wavelength 3.39µm. similarly transition
E4 to E3 lead to laser radiation of wavelength 1.15µm. also transition from E6 to E3 lead to laser radiation
of wavelength 6328A0 ,which is known as red light from helium neon laser. The first two transitions E6 to
E5 and E4 to E3 are in infrared region. Helium neon laser requires 5 to 10W of excitation power and
produces 0.5 to 50mW of laser output.

Advantages of gas laser over solid state laser

 Gas laser are in general, found to emit light which is more directional and more monochromatic,
this is because of the absence of the effects such as crystalline imperfection, thermal distortion
and scattering which are present in solid state lasers.
 Gas lasers are capable of operating continuously without the need for cooling so this is also called
as continuous output laser.

Application of laser:

 Industrial applications
Micromachining: by this technique very small holes can be made into very hard materials
including steel, ceramic alloys.
The advantage of this laser micromachining over conventional drilling is that there is no physical
contact of a tool with the material, there is no temperature change in the sample the working time
is very short of the order of millisecond.
Micro welding: in this technique a focused laser beam is incident on a spot of two parts to be
welded. The spot contact points melts and get welded.
 Chemical applications
1. It is useful to start the chemical reaction on selective basis due to controlled intensity,
narrowness and monochromaticity of laser.
2. With laser it is possible to join or break up a single molecular bond to create s new
chemical compound.
 Defence applications
In a laser gun a convergent beam can be concentrated.
A laser beam is used in precision measurement of distance, thickness angles and velocities. Thus
it is useful in tracking satellites and in guiding missiles on to the enemy targets.
 Medical applications
Laser used in treating a detached retina. It is used in performing bloodless operations.
 Other applications
1. The lasers are used to cut cloth in commercial garment industry.
2. The computer printouts are taken with laser printers.
3. The laser video/audio can store more than 80000 separate images on each side of a
compact disc(CD).
 Scientific applications
1. It can used to find out velocity of moving objects (liquid flow) etc. this is based on
DOPPLER EFFECT.
2. Laser is being used in nuclear fusion.
3. It is very useful in Raman spectroscopy.
4. It has been used to determine accurately the velocity of light.