Manufacturing Systems & CNC Machines

By

V. THULASIKANTH
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department

Email Id:

[email protected]

Manufacturing System
what is system.
A system has number of components,
combined together to achieve a goal.
Manufacturing is conversion of raw
material into final goods and services.
Any manufacturing organization can
also be called as a Production system.

Manufacturing System

There are 3 main components in a

manufacturing system.
INPUT

Transformation
Process

OUTPUT

Manufacturing

Production System Definition

Collection of people, equipment,
and procedures organized to
accomplish the manufacturing
operations of a company.

Aim: identify and locate the most

efficient method to produce a product.
Objective: reduce time to market,
increase quality, reduce cost

Manufacturing Systems

Manufacturing Systems
Manufacturing Support Systems

Manufacturing Systems

Relationship between Manufacturing and its Support systems

Manufacturing Systems

Manufacturing Systems

Manufacturing Systems

Components of
Manufacturing System

Production Machines

Material Handling System

Computer Control System

Human Resources

Production Machines

In virtually all modern manufacturing systems,

most of the actual processing or assembly
work is accomplished by machines or with the
aid of tools
Classification of production machines:

Manually operated machines are controlled or

supervised by a human worker
2. Semi-automated machines perform a portion of the
work cycle under some form of program control, and
a worker tends the machine the rest of the cycle
3. Fully automated machines operate for extended
periods of time with no human attention
1.

Manually Operated Machine

Manually operated machines are controlled or supervised by a human

worker. The machine provides the power for the operation and the
worker provides the control. The entire work cycle is operator
controlled.

Semi-Automated Machine

A semi-automated machine performs a portion of the work cycle

under some form of program control, and a worker tends to the
machine for the remainder of the cycle. Typical worker tasks
include loading and unloading parts

Fully-Automated Machine

Machine operates for extended periods (longer than one

work cycle) without worker attention (periodic tending
may be needed).

Material Handling System

In most manufacturing systems that process

or assemble discrete parts and products, the
following material handling functions must be
provided:
Loading work units at each station
2. Positioning work units at each station
3. Unloading work units at each station
4. Transporting work units between stations in multistation systems
5. Temporary storage of work units
1.

Loading - Positioning unloading

Loading involves moving the work unit into

production m/c or processing equipment.

Positioning is accomplished by workholder

A workholder is a device that accurately locates and

orients the part for the operation and resist any
forces that may occurring during processing

After completion of production process the work unit

may Unloaded.

Work Transport Between

Stations

Two general categories of work transport

in multi-station manufacturing systems:
1. Fixed

routing

Work units always flow through the same

sequence of workstations
Most production lines exemplify this category

2. Variable

routing

Work units are moved through a variety of

different station sequences
Most job shops exemplify this category

(a) Fixed Routing and

(b) Variable Routing

Computer Control System

Typical computer functions in a manufacturing system:

Communicate instructions to workers (receive processing or

assembly instructions for the specific work unit)
Download part programs to computer-controlled machines
Control material handling system
Schedule production
Failure diagnosis when malfunctions occur and preventive
maintenance
Safety monitoring (protect both the human worker and
equipment)
Quality control (detect and reject defective work units
produced by the system)
Operations management (manage overall operations)

Human Workers

In manufacturing systems, humans perform some

or all of the value added work that is
accomplished on the parts or products

These human workers are called labor

Human workers are also needed for automated

manufacturing systems to manage or support the
system as computer programmers and operators
in the case of CNC machines.

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing System
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Manufacturing Systems
Types

Challenges in Manufacturing

Manufacturing industries strive to reduce the cost of the

product continuously to remain competitive in the face of
global competition.

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Factors
in
Manufacturing
Classification Scheme

Systems

-Type

of operations performed
-Number of workstations
-System layout
-Automation and manning level
-Part or product variety

34

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Types of Operations Performed
-Processing
operations on individual
work units
-Assembly
operations
to
combine
individual units into assembled entities.
Additional parameters:
-Type of material processed affect the
type of equipment and handling method.
-Size and weight of the part or product
has an effect on safety hazards
-Part or product complexity
-Part geometry
35

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Number of Workstations
As
the
number
of
stations
increases, the amount of work that can
be
accomplished
by
the
system
increases. More stations also mean the
system is more complex and therefore
more difficult to manage and maintain.
The system consists of more workers,
machines and parts being handled. The
material handling system is more
complex in a multi station system as n
increases. Reliability and maintenance
problems occur more frequently.
36

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Number of Workstations
Convenient measure of the size of the
system
Let n = number of workstations
Individual workstations can be identified

by subscript i, where i = 1, 2,...,n

Affects
performance
factors
such
as
workload capacity, production rate, and
reliability
As n increases, this usually means greater

workload capacity and higher production

rate
There must be a synergistic effect that
37
derives from n multiple stations working

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

System Layout
An important factor in determining
the most appropriate material handling
system.
-Applies mainly to multi-station systems
n = 1, single station cell
n >= 2, multi station system
-Fixed routing vs. variable routing
In
systems
with
fixed
routing,
workstations
are
usually
arranged
linearly
In systems with variable routing, 38a

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Automation and Manning Levels
Level of workstation automation
Manually operated
Semi-automated
Fully automated
Manning level
Mi
= proportion of time worker in
attendance at station i
Mi = 1 means that one worker must be at
the station continuously
Mi 1 indicates manual operations
Mi

< 1 usually denotes some form of

automation
39

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Automation and Manning Levels
Utility Workers not specifically
assigned to individual processing or
assembly stations. They perform
functions such as
1.Relieving workers at stations for
personal breaks
2.Maintenance and repair of the system
3.Material handling and
4.Tool changing
40

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Part or Product Variety
The degree to which the system is
capable of dealing with variations in the parts
or products it produces
Possible Variations:
-Variations in type and/or color of plastic of
molded parts in injection molding.
-Variations in electronic components placed on
a standard size printed circuit board
-Variations in the size of printed circuit boards
handled bu a component placement machine
-Variations in geometry of machined parts
-Variations
in parts and options in an
41
assembled product.

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Part or Product Variety
1.

2.

3.

Three cases:
Single-model case - all parts or products
are identical (sufficient demand/fixed
automation)
Batch-model case - different parts or
products are produced by the system, but
they are produced in batches because
changeovers are required (hard product
variety)
Mixed-model case - different parts or
products are produced by the system, but
the system can handle the differences
without the need for time-consuming
42
changes in setup (soft product variety)

ssification of Manufacturing Syst

Part or Product Variety

(a) Single-model case, (b) batch model case, and (c) mixed-model case

43

Current Trends In Manufacturing Engineering

Group Technology
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Computer Aided Process Planning
Total Quality Approach
Concurrent Engineering
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Numerically Controlled Production Process

Group Technology
Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts
are identified and grouped together to take advantage of their
similarities in design and production.
Similar parts are arranged into part families. where each part family
possesses similar design and/or manufacturing characteristics.
The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the production
facilities into manufacturing cells that specialize in production of
certain part families.
Grouping the production equipment into machine cells, where each cell
specializes in the production of a part family is called cellular
manufacturing.
Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually made in
batches.
45

Disadvantages of batch production:

Downtime for changeovers
High inventory carrying costs
GT minimizes these disadvantages by recognizing that although the
parts are different, there are groups of parts that possess similarities.
When to Use GT and Cellular Manufacturing
1.The plant currently uses traditional batch production and a
process type layout:
This results in much material handling effort, high in process
inventory, and long manufacturing lead times.
2. The parts can be grouped into part families:
Each machine cell is designed to produce a given part family, or a
limited collection of part families, so it must be possible to group
parts made in the plant into families.
46

Problems in Implementing GT
1. Identifying the part families
Reviewing all of the parts made in the plant and grouping them
into part families is a substantial task
2. Rearranging production machines into GT cells
It is time-consuming and costly to physically rearrange the
machines into cells, and the machines are not producing during the
changeover

Part Family
A collection of parts that possess similarities in geometric shape
and size, or in the processing steps used in their manufacture

Two categories of part similarities can be distinguished:

(1) design attributes, which are concerned with part characteristics
such as geometry, size, and material
47

(2) manufacturing attributes, which consider the sequence of processing

steps required to make a part.
(3) Both design and manufacturing attributes

Ten parts are different in size, shape, and material, but quite similar in terms

of manufacturing
All parts are machined from cylindrical stock by turning; some parts require
48drilling

and/or milling

Traditional Process Layout

49

Cellular Layout Based on GT

Each cell specializes in producing one or a limited number of
part families

50

Ways to Identify Part Families

1.Visual inspection
Using best judgment to group parts into appropriate families, based on the
parts or photos of the parts

2. Parts classification and coding

Identifying similarities and differences among parts and relating them by
means of a coding scheme

3. Production flow analysis

Using information contained on route sheets to classify parts

Parts Classification and Coding

Identification
51

of similarities among parts and relating the

similarities by means of a numerical coding system

Parts Classification and Coding

Identification of similarities among parts and relating the
similarities by means of a numerical coding system
Most time consuming of the three methods,
Must be customized for a given company or industry,
Reasons for using a coding scheme:
Design retrieval,

A designer faced with the task of developing a new

part can use a design retrieval system to determine if
a similar part already exists.
Simply changing an existing part would take much
less time than designing a whole new part from
scratch.

Parts Classification and Coding

Automated process planning,
The part code for a new part can be used to search for process
plans for existing parts with identical or similar codes.
Machine cell design.
The part codes can be used to design machine cells capable of
producing all members of a particular part family, using the composite
part concept

Features of Parts Classification and Coding

Systems
Most classification and coding systems are
based on one of the following:
Part design attributes
Part manufacturing attributes,
Both design and manufacturing attributes

Features of Parts Classification and Coding

Systems

Coding Scheme Structures

1.Hierarchical structure (monocode)
Interpretation of each successive digit depends on the value of the
preceding digit
2. Chain-type structure (polycode)
Interpretation of each symbol is always the same
No dependence on previous digits
3. Mixed-code structure
Combination of hierarchical and chain-type structures

56

Opitz Classification System

The Opitz coding scheme uses the following digit sequence:

12345 6789 ABCD

The first five digits, 12345, are called the

form code.

It describes the primary design attributes of the part, such as

external shape (e.g., rotational vs. rectangular) and machined features

(e.g., holes, threads, gear teeth, etc.
The next four digits, 6789are called

supplementary code.

It describes some of the attributes that would be of use in

manufacturing (e.g., dimensions, work material, starting shape, and

accuracy).
57

The extra four digits, ABCD, are referred to as the

secondary

code
It is intended to identify the production operation type and

sequence.
The secondary code can be designed by the user firm to serve its

own particular needs.

Second type of coding is MULTY CLASS CODING it is 18

digit

58

59

OPTIZ

60

61

Flow

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

Production flow analysis (PFA)

Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for identifying part
families and associated machine groupings that uses the
information contained on production route sheets rather than on
part drawings.

74

Problems from M.P. Groover book on

1.Rank Order Clustering Technique
2. Group Technology Machine Sequence using Hollier Method 1 and 2

75

1. In each row of the matrix. read the series of ls and G's (blank entries = D's) from
left to fight as a binary number. Rank the rows in 01 del uf decreasing value. In
case of a tie, rank the rows in the same order as they appear in the current matrix
2. Numbering from top to bottom, is the current order of rows the same as the rank
order
determined in the previous step? If yes, go to step 7, If no, go to the following step.
3, Reorder the rows in the part-machine incidence matrix by listing them in
decreasing
rank order, starting from the top
4. In each column ot tbe matrix. read the series of I 's and O's (blank entries = (j's)
from
top to bottom as a binary number. Rank the columns in order of decreasing value, In
case of a tie. rank the columns in the same order as they appear in the current
matrix.
5. Numbering Irom left to right, is the current order of columns the same as the rank
order determined in the previous step? If yes. go to step 7. If no.go to the following
step.
6. Reorder the columns in the part-machine incidence matrix by li~ling them in
decreasing
rank order, starting with the left column. Go to step I.
7 Stop
76

Benefits of Group Technology in Manufacturing

Standardization of tooling, fixtures, and setups is encouraged.
Material handling is reduced.
Parts are moved within a machine cell rather than the entire factory.
Process planning and production scheduling are simplified.
Work-in-process and manufacturing lead time are reduced.
Improved worker satisfaction in a GT cell
Higher quality work

77

Flexible Manufacturing System

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a form of flexible automation
in which several machine tools are linked together by a materialhandling system, and all aspects of the system are controlled by a
central computer.
FMS technology can be applied in situations similar to those identified
for group technology and cellular manufacturing; specifically,
Presently, the plant either (1) produces parts in batches or (2) uses
manned GT cells and management wants to automate .
The parts or products made by the facility are in the mid-volume,
mid-variety production range.

78

79

Components of FMS Systems

80

Robotics
Material Handling / Transport
Machines
Manual / Automated Assembly Cells
Computers
Controllers
Software
Networks

What are The Features of FMS?

An FMS is distinguished from an automated production line by its ability

to process more than one product style simultaneously.

At any moment, each machine in the system may be processing a

different part type.

FMS can let us make changes in production schedule in order to meet

the demands on different products.

Distinguishing Characteristics:
An automatic materials handling subsystem links machines in the system and

provides for automatic interchange of work pieces in each machine

Automatic continuous cycling of individual machines
Complete control of the manufacturing system by the host computer
Lightly manned, or possibly unmanned
81

Benefits of FMS
FMS systems are intended to solve
the
following
Reduced
workproblems:
in process
Increased machine utilization
Better management control
Reduced direct and indirect labor
Reduced manufacturing lead-time
Consistent and better quality
Reduced inventory

82

LAYOUT CONFIGURATIONS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Flexible manufacturing system brings rewards in actual manufacture of products as
the process is designed for several products to be run on different machines.

Line layout
An Automated guided vehicle is most efficient when the movement is in straightlines along the AGV path in a single-row machine layout.
Machines are arranged only on one side of AGV path and in double row machine
layout, machines are arranged on both sides.

83

Loop layout
The loop layout uses conveyor systems that allow unidirectional flow of parts
around the loop.
A secondary material handling system is provided at a workstation which permits
the flow of parts without any
obstruction.

84

Ladder type layout

Ladder type layout consists of rungs on which workstations are located. This
reduces the average travel distance thereby reducing the transfer time between
workstations.

85

Carousel layout
In the Carousel layout configuration, parts flow in one direction around the loop.
The load, unload stations are placed at one end of loop

86

Robot centered cell

If a handling robot is used in a Flexible manufacturing system cell , the machines
are laid out in a circle, such a layout is called circular layout.

87

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)

CIM is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control the entire

production process.
The integration allows individual processes to exchange information with each

other and initiate actions.

Through the integration of computers, manufacturing can be faster and less error-

prone, although the main advantage is the ability to create automated manufacturing
processes.
Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes, based on real-time input

from sensors.

CIM is a management philosophy in which the functions of

design and manufacturing are rationalized and coordinated
using
computer,
communication
and
information
technologies.
88

89

In a CIM system functional areas such as design, analysis, planning,

purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control, and distribution are linked through
the computer with factory floor functions such as materials handling and
management, providing direct control and monitoring of all the operations.
Some factors involved when considering a CIM implementation are the

production volume, the experience of the company or personnel to make the

integration, the level of the integration into the product itself and the integration of
the production processes.

CIMS Benefits:
Increased machine utilization
Reduced direct and indirect labour
Reduce mfg. lead time
Lower in process inventory
Scheduling flexibility.

CIM represents a new production approach that will allow the

factories to deliver a high variety of products at a low cost and with
short production cycles.

90

Historical overview
Historical Development
15th century Machining Metal
18th century Industrialization, production type

machine tools
20th century F.W. Taylor tool metal, HSS
Automated production equipment
Screw machines
Transfer lines
Assembly lines
-----using cams and preset shops
Programmable automation
NC
PLC
Robots

91

Introductory concepts

FMS
(TG
S)

92

Introductory concepts
THOSE USING
SINGLE POINT
TOOLS
lathes
shapers
planers
boring machines
etc.

FMS
(TGS
)

93

THOSE USING
MULTI POINT
TOOLS
drilling machines
milling machines
broaching machines
hobbing machines
etc.

THOSE USING
ABRASIVE
TOOLS
grinding machines
honing machines
etc.

Introductory concepts

FMS
(TGS
)

94

Computer Control of
Manufacturing
Systems
NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)
A form of programmable automation
Numbers, letters, and symbols are coded to define a

program of instructions for a particular work part or

job.
Two categories of numerical control
applications:
Machine tool applications (drilling, milling, etc.)
Non-machine tool applications (assembly, drafting, etc.)

Basic Components of NC
1. Program of instructions
2. Machine control unit
3. Processing equipment
Drive system
Machine tool
Feedback system

FMS
(TGS
)

95

Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems

96

flexo writer

Introductory concepts
The number of pulses transmitted to each axis determines

the incremental axis position, and the frequency of these

pulses regulates the axis speed.
Miscellaneous control functions are a set of on/off signals to

implement the control of the speed and direction of the

spindle rotation, control of coolant supply, selection of
cutting tool, automatic clamping and unclamping, etc.
NC is often referred to as the older generation of numerical

control technology. NC systems are hard-wired controls

in which most functions are implemented by electronic
hardware based upon digital circuit technology.

FMS
(TGS
)

98

Introductory concepts
Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control
system in which a dedicated, stored program computer is
built into the control to perform basic and advanced NC
functions.
CNC controls are also referred to as soft-wired NC systems

because most of their control functions are implemented by

the control software programs.

The control signals in CNC systems are in the form of binary

words. Each word contains a fixed number of bits, 32 bits or 64

bits are commonly used. Each bit of data produces one BLU motion
in the controlled axis.

Theoretically a 32-bit word could represent one of up to 232 =

4,294,967,296 different axial positions. If the system

resolution is, for example, BLU = 0.0001 in., this number can
represent up to 429,969 in. possible motions, which is more than
enough for all types of applications

99

CNC Machines
What is a CNC Machine?
Numerical

Control Machines.

Programs are input thru input devices like tape or punched

cards.
NC machines control only the position of job relative to
cutting tool.
Feed rate, speed and tools will be selected by the operator.
The instruction from the Tape will be converted into
machine movement by MCU units.

Basic components of CNC Machine

Program of instructions is detailed step by step command to

that direct the processing unit.

Machine Control Unit (MCU) is the brain of the NC machine.
Machine Tools or Processing equipment which performs
useful work

102

1.

Program of instructions: Detailed step-by-step commands

that direct the processing equipment. The most common
medium on which the program is submitted to the machine control
unit has been 1-in.-wide punched tape. More recently, magnetic
tape cassettes and floppy diskettes and computer via RS232-C communication are used.

2. Machine Control Unit (MCU): Electronics and control hardware

that read and interpret the program of instruction and
convert it into mechanical actions of the mach. Tool or other
processing equipment.
Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to
generate axis motion commands
Feed axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for
driving the axis mechanisms
Receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each
drive axis

Implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or

spindle on/off, and tool change
3. Processing Equipment: Component that performs useful work. Ex.
Work table, spindle, motors.

The MCU and other Components of the NC System

Drive System
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and
ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds control signals (position and
speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are
augmented to actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball leadscrews to position the machine table.
Machine Tool
CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools.
Regardless of which type of machine tool is controlled, it always has
a slide table and a spindle to control of position and speed.
The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle
runs along the Z axis.
Feedback System
The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system.
It uses position and speed transducers to continuously
monitor the position at which the cutting tool is located at
any particular time. The MCU uses the difference between
reference signals and feedback signals to generate the
control signals for correcting position and speed errors.

104

TYPES OF CNC MACHINE

CNC Machining Centers
CNC Turning Centers
CNC Drilling Machines
EDM Sinker and wire cut Machines
Flame and Laser-Cutting Machines
Water Jet Profilers
CNC Boring machines
CNC Punching machines
CNC Grinding machines
CNC Welding machines
CNC Bending machines

Basic principle of CNC

Each axis consists of a mechanical component,
such as a slide that moves, a servo drive motor
that powers the mechanical movement, and a
ball screw to transfer the power from the servo
drive motor to the mechanical component. These
components, along with the computer controls
that govern them, are referred to as an axis drive
system.
Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear
axis in which movement is in a straight line, or a
rotary axis with motion following a circular path.

Advantages of NC with Small Lot Sizes

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reduced non-production time

Reduced fixturing
Reduced lead time
Greater manufacturing flexibility
Easier to accommodate engineering design changes on the work
piece
6. Improved accuracy and reduced human error.

NC is most appropriate for the following conditions

1. Frequently processed parts with small to medium lot sizes
2. Complex part geometry
3. Close tolerances
4. Need of much metal removal
5. 100% inspection required parts
6. Expensive parts where processing mistakes are costly
7. Need of many operations on the part
8. Likely engineering design changes
FMS
(TGS
)

107

Introductory concepts
Advantages and Limitations of CNC
The main advantages of using CNC technology are to reduce product cost,
improve product quality, and facilitate production planning and control.
These benefits can be realized through these nine causes:

Advantages
Increased productivity
Reduced production costs
Facilitation of complex

108

machining operations
Improved production planning
and control
Facilitation of flexible
automation
High accuracy and repeatability
Reduced indirect operating
costs
Greater flexibility
Lower operator skill
requirement

FMS(TGS)

Limitations
high initial investment
high maintenance

requirement, and
not cost-effective for low
productions runs

CNC Dual turret center

FMS
(TGS
)

109

FMS
(TGS
)

110

FMS
(TG
S)

111

CNC vertical Milling Machine

Double axis machining center

FMS
(TGS
)

112

Coordinate System and Machine

Motions
Coordinate System -I
The purpose is to provide a means of locating the
tool in relation to the work piece.
Numerical control coordinate system is defined
with respect to the machine tool table.
Depending on the type of NC machine, the part
programmer may have several options for
specifying the location. One of these options:
1.
*Fixed zero: the origin is always located
at the same position on the machine table. All
locations must be defined by x and y coordinates
relative to that fixed origin.
*Floating zero: Modern NC machines allow
the machine operator to set the zero point at
any position on the machine table.
FMS
(TGS
)

113

Coordinate System -II

2. *Absolute
Positioning: The tool locations are
*
always defined in relation to the zero point.
*Incremental Positioning: The next tool
location must be defined with reference to
the previous tool location.
Machine Axes Designation & Direction
The EIA-267-B standard specifies fourteen axes
for describing the linear and rotary motions
of CNC machines. This includes nine linear
axes and five rotary axes. The nine linear axes
are further divided into the following three groups:
(see figure below)
Primary linear axes (X,Y, and Z)
Secondary linear axes (U, V, and W)
Tertiary linear axes (P, Q, and R)
FMS
(TGS
)

114

 The primary axes (X, Y, and Z) are assigned to the primary

slide table. The secondary linear axes (U, V, and W) are

added to the primary axes for defining the movement of

the second moving slide or spindle. Similarly, the tertiary
linear axes (P, Q, and R) are used to represent the linear
motion of the third slide or spindle.
The five rotary axes consist of three primary rotary
axes (A, B, and C) and two special axes (D and E) (right
figure). Their definitions are:

FMS
(TGS
)

115

Machine Axes Designation

Machine axes are designated according to the
"right-hand rule". When the thumb of right hand
points in the direction of the positive X axis, the
index finger points toward the positive Y axis, and
the middle finger toward the positive Z aixs. The
left figure shows the right-hand rule applied to vertical
machines, while the right figure applies to horizontal
machines.

FMS
(TG
S)

116

Direction of Machine Axes

Direction of Machine Axes

CNC controls use the positive (+) and negative (-) sign to
indicate the motion direction of the machine axes. This is
how we define the directions.
+Z direction: is the direction which increases the distance
between the workpiece and the cutting tool.
-Z direction: is in the opposite direction of +Z.
+X direction: (a) In vertical machines, it is the direction to the
right when observed from the spindle toward its supporting
column.
(b) In horizontal machines, it is pointed to the right when viewed
from the spindle axis toward the workpiece.
-X direction: is in the opposite direction of +X.
+Y direction: follows the right-hand rule: when the thumb points
toward the +X axis and the middle finger is directed toward the
+Z axis, the index finger points in the direction of the +Y axis.
-Y direction: is in the opposite direction of +Y.

FMS
(TGS
)

117

Reference Zero Points

Reference zero points are the base or starting points that are
chosen as the reference for calculating the coordinates of
the other points. Also, reference zero points are called the zero
points. CNC controls use the following four types of reference zero
points to facilitate the programming of tool paths:
Machine zero point
Reference return point
Work zero point
Program zero point
Machine Zero Point
The machine zero point is the origin of the machine coordinate
system.
It is set by the machine tool manufacturer and can not be changed.
The machine zero is labeled with an M and represented by this
symbol:
The location of the machine zero point varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer.

118

For turning machines, the machine zero is normally located at

the center of the spindle end face (left figure). In milling
machines, the machine zero is usually at the extreme limit of
each axis travel (right figure).
Normally the machine zero is not directly used as the
reference point for writing part programs. It may be used in
one of the following three applications:
1.
Initial setup of the machine
2.
As the reference point for other reference
points such as reference return
points, work zeros, and
program zeros
3.

FMS
(TGS
)

119

As the tool change position

Reference Return Point

Reference return points are the locations to which the
machine table or the spindle is returned. They are
identified by the letter R and are represented by the symbol
Some CNC controls allow defining up to four reference return

points. Normally, the machine zero is set to be the first

reference return point in milling machines [(Figure below
(left)].
The second, third, and fourth reference return points are
specified by setting their parameter values. They can be set
at any convenient location within the work envelope. In
turning machines, the reference return point is located in the
extreme end of the work envelope [Figure below (right)]
The location of the first reference return point is
precisely predetermined in each moving axis in
relation to the machine zero point. Because of this, it
can be used for calibrating and regulating the
measuring system of the slide table and spindle.

FMS
(TG
S)

120

Specifically, the reference point is used in four situations

1. When the control is powered up, all axes always must be positioned at
the reference return point to calibrate the measuring system.
2. The machine must be re-positioned to the reference return point for
reestablishing the proper coordinate values in situations such as
losing the current position data due to electrical failure or
improper operation.
3. All axes must be retracted to the reference point before the tool
change can take place.
4. At the end of the part program, all axes must be retracted to the
reference return point to reset the control system for re-running the
part program or running a new part program.

FMS
(TG
S)

121

Work Zero Point

Work Zero Point
A work zero point is the origin of the workpiece's coordinate
system.
It is used to determine the work's coordinate system in
relation to the machine zero point.
The work's zero points are often referred to as setup points
because they are the locations for setting up the workpiece
on the machine table.
Some CNC controls allow the use of multiple work zero
points in one machine setup or operation. The work zero
point is labeled by W and represented by the symbol
The work zero point can be chosen by the programmer at
any convenient location within the working envelope of the
machine. It is recommended that you place the work zero
point in a way that it can be easily located and measured
on the workpiece.
FMS
(TGS
)

122

Work zero point

two common methods of choosing the work zero point for
turnings (top figure) and the bottom figure shows milling
examples.

FMS
(TGS
)

123

Types of NC Systems
TYPES OF NC SYSTEMS

1. Point-to-point: The objective is to move the cutting tool

to a predefined location. Once the tool reaches the
desired location, the machining operation is performed at
that location.
2. Straight cut: Capable of moving the cutting tool parallel
to one of the major axes. Workpieces of rectangular
configurations may be fabricated. Angular cuts are not
possible.
3. Contouring: The most complex, the most flexible, and
the most expensive type of machine tool control. Capable
of performing both PTP and straight-cut operations. In
addition, simultaneous control of more than one axis
movement of the machine tool. Straight or plane surfaces
at any orientation, circular paths, conical shapes, most
any other mathematically definable form are possible.
FMS
(TG
S)

124

Position and Motion Control in an NC System

The data read into the MCU define machine

table positions.
Each axis is equipped with a drive unit which
is connected to the table by means of a lead
screw.
The axis positioning system may be designed
as either an open-loop or a closed-loop
system.

FMS
(TGS
)

125

CNC Drive Systems

CNC Drive Systems
The CNC drive systems can be either open loop
or closed loop type. The main difference
between the two systems depends on whether
the system has a feedback loop to insure the
accuracy of system performance.
Open-loop NC systems make use of stepping motors.
Each pulse generated my MCU drives the stepping
motor by a fraction of one revolution, step angle.
= Step angle (integer)
360

= number of step angles n

ns

FMS
(TGS
)

126

P= number of pulses received by the motor

fp= pulse rate (frequency of the pulse train)
t= duration of the pulse train
S= rotational speed of the stepping motor
angle of rotation=P
angle of rotation=fpt

60 f p
S
ns

By controlling the number of pulses to the

motor the position of the table is controlled

without feedback sensors.
Stepping motors are used on NC systems where
the load is relatively small.
FMS
(TGS
)

127

CNC Drive Systems

Open Loop System

No feedback loop is used in open loop drive

systems.
The drive motor acts upon the control
commands from the machine control unit (MCU).
The system simply assumes the machine table
will reach the target position.
There is no way for the MCU to know the actual
performance of the system.
An open loop system is very sensitive to the load
resistance.
Position and velocity error may occur when a
heavy cutting resistance is encountered.
FMS
(TGS
)

128

CNC Drive Systems

Open loop drives are typically used in PTP systems in which
the cutting tool does not engage with the work piece during
positioning. They can also be used in light-loaded cutting
machines. Open loop systems are less expensive, but they
are prone to load resistances during machining.

FMS
(TGS
)

129

A closed-loop system uses position sensors to

measure the table position relative to the input value

for the axis.
Generally uses dc servomotor or hydraulic actuator.
Various feedback sensor devices are used. Ex. Optical
encoder.
Optical encoder consists of a light source, a
photodetector,, and a disk which is connected to the
rotating shaft whose angular position is to be
measured.
As the disk rotates, the openings on the disk cause
the light source to be seen as a series of flashes.
The photodetector emits an electrical signal equal to
the number flashes which are counted by the MCU.
= angle between the openings in the disk
Nd= number of openings in the encoder disk 360
ns
angle of rotation= P
FMS
(TG
S)

130

Pulses generated by the optical encoder is

compared with the input position command

The error is used to control a dc servo motor,
which in turn drives the machine table.
Closed-loop NC systems are more appropriate
for processes that generate a significant load
during operation. Ex: milling, turning.
Accuracy:
A measure of the control systems capacity to
position the machine table at a desired location .
Related to the control resolution of an NC
system.
Control resolution is the capability of the MCU to
divide the range of a given axis movement in to
closely spaced points. It is the distance between
adjacent control points.
FMS
(TG
S)

131

CNC Drive Systems

Closed Loop System

With closed loop drive systems, feedback sub-systems

are used to monitor the actual output and correct any

discrepancy between desired and actual system
performance. Feedback sub-systems may be either an
analog or digital type. Analog systems measure the
variation of physical systems such as position and
velocity in voltage level. Tachometers are typically used
to measure the velocity, while resolvers for position.
There are two feedback loops in CNC drive systems:
position loop and velocity loop.
The position loop is the outer loop that consists of a
comparator, an amplifier circuit, a velocity loop, a
resolver, and a resolver interface.

FMS
(TGS
)

132

n= number of bits for an axis

number of control points= 2n
CR

range of axis movement

2n

CR
accuracy
3 (std. dev. of mech. error)
2

Repeatability:
Ability of the control system to return to a
given location that was previously
programmed into the controller.
repeatabil
ity 3 (std.
dev. ofare
mech.
error) by
repeatability
errors
caused
6 (std.
dev. of mech. error)
mechanical
errors.
FMS
(TGS
)

133

CNC Machines
What is a CNC Machine?
Numerical

Control Machines.

Programs are input thru input devices like tape or punched

cards.
NC machines control only the position of job relative to
cutting tool.
Feed rate, speed and tools will be selected by the operator.
The instruction from the Tape will be converted into
machine movement by MCU units.

Categories of CNC M/c

NC applications have two categories
1.Machine tool applications
- drilling, milling, turning & other metal
working operations
2.Non-machine tool applications

- assembly, drafting & inspection.

History: John Parson , Frank Stulen in
collaboration with MIT for the USA air force.
NC predecessor of CNC

Basic components of CNC Machine

Program of instructions is detailed step by step command to

that direct the processing unit.

Machine Control Unit (MCU) is the brain of the NC machine.
Machine Tools or Processing equipment which performs
useful work

TYPES OF CNC MACHINE

CNC Machining Centers
CNC Turning Centers
CNC Drilling Machines
EDM Sinker and wire cut Machines
Flame and Laser-Cutting Machines
Water Jet Profilers
CNC Boring machines
CNC Punching machines
CNC Grinding machines
CNC Welding machines
CNC Bending machines

Basic principle of CNC

Each axis consists of a mechanical component, such
as a slide that moves, a servo drive motor that
powers the mechanical movement, and a ball screw
to transfer the power from the servo drive motor to
the mechanical component. These components,
along with the computer controls that govern them,
are referred to as an axis drive system.
Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear axis

in which movement is in a straight line, or a rotary

axis with motion following a circular path.

CNC Machine Tools

NC Motion Control
Point-to-Point systems
Also called position systems
System moves to a location and performs an

operation at that location (e.g., drilling)

Also applicable in robotics
Continuous path systems
Also called contouring systems when control

of 2 or>2 axe is present

System performs an operation during
movement (e.g., milling and turning)

NC Motion Control
Continuous path systems

Point-to-Point systems

1.Control system based

Point-to-point control systems
It cause the tool to maintain continuous contact with the part as

the tool cuts a contour shape. These operations include milling

along any lines at any angle, milling arcs and lathe turning.

Motion Control
Point-to-point control
(continual)
drilling

Linear control
milling machines, lathes

Contouring control
machining (milling, turning)

point-to-point motion tool is moved to specific location, path or speed of move

between location is not controlled. (drilling)
Linear control movement along one of the axes of the machine.
Contouring control movement can be made in two or more axes
simultaneously.

Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation
Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
Circular arc defined by starting point, end point,

center or radius, and direction

3. Helical interpolation
Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic interpolation
5. Cubic interpolation
Free form curves using higher order equations

Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight

line segments, where tolerance is defined on only the inside of
the nominal curve

Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight

line segments, where tolerance is defined on only the inside of
the nominal curve

Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight line

segments, where tolerance is defined on both the inside and outside of
the nominal curve

2.Feedback based
Open Loop System
Uses
stepping motor to create
movement. Motors rotate a fixed amount
for each pulse received from the MCU.
The motor sends a signal back indicating
that the movement is completed. No
feedback to check how close the actual
machine movement comes to the exact
movement programmed.

Closed Loop System

AC, DC, and hydraulic servo motors are

used. The speed of these motors are
variable and controlled by the amount of
current or fluid. The motors are connect
to the spindle and the table. A device
called a resolver continuously monitors
the movement and sends back a single to
MCU to make adjustments.

3.Drives of CNC machine tool

Hydraulic actuator
high power machine tool

Stepping motor
small machine due to limited power and torque

DC motor

- excellent speed regulation, high torque, most widely

used

4.Coordinate System
1. Absolute . In this mode, the desired target position of the tool
for a particular move is given relative to the origin point of the
program.
2. Incremental. In this mode, the next target position for the tool
is given relative to the current tool position.

NC Coordinate Systems
Based on the Cartesian Coordinate system
For flat and prismatic (block-like) parts:
Milling and drilling operations
Conventional Cartesian coordinate system
Rotational axes about each linear axis
For rotational parts:
Turning operations
Only x- and z-axes
Z-axis is always
parallel to the axis of
rotation

NC Coordinate Systems

Features of CNC
1. Storage of more than one part program
-Memory expansions possible

2. Various forms of program input

- initially hardwired, magnetic tapes, floppy.

Now RS2 32
3. Program editing at the machine tool
4. Fixed cycles and programming subroutines

- Macros
5. Interpolation

Features
of
CNC
6. Positioning features for setup
- Position set feature, references the m/c tool axes to a
point or a set of points on the fixture. Operator does not do
it.

7. Cutter length and size compensation

- cutter sensor used to calculate exact dimensions of

tool and cutter offset, as they may be different from
that originally planned
8. Acceleration and deceleration computations

- to avoid tool marks during direction change

9. Communications interface

- RS-232 standards allow m/c tool to link with other

computer driven devices for

downloading programs,
collecting operational data and
interfacing with peripheral equipment like robots, AS/R, AGVs

Machining Centre
Machining centre is a machine tool capable
of performing several different machining
operations on a work part in one setup under
program control
capable of milling, drilling, reaming, tapping,
boring, facing, and similar operations.
Characterizations of an NC machining center:
Automatic tool-changing capability
Automatic work part positioning has a rotary

table
Pallet shuttle.

Machining Centre - types

Three types of machining centres
1.Vertical Machining centre
2.Horizontal Machining centre
3.Universal Machining centre

Machining Centre - types

Vertical
For flat

work
pieces
that
require
tool
access
from the
top

Vertical Machining Centre

Machining Centre - types

Horizontal
For cube shaped parts, where access is required all sides
Has spindle on the horizontal axis

Universal
Machining
Centre

Spindle axis can

be tilted from
horizontal to
vertical
Equivalent to 5axis machining

CNC Controllers

CNC Controllers
CNC controller interprets part program instructions and then converts them into two
types of control signals:
Motion control signals
- a series of electric pulse trains that control position and the speed of machine
table and spindle.
- Each pulse activates a motion of one basic length-unit (BLU) which is the
minimum increment size of the NC control system
- number of pulses transmitted to each axis determines the incremental axis
position; frequency of these pulses regulates the axis speed

CNC Controllers

The control signals in CNC systems are in the form of

binary words. Each word contains a fixed number of

bits, 32 bits or 64 bits are commonly used.
Each bit of data produces one BLU motion in the
controlled axis.
A 32-bit word could represent one of up to 232 =
4,294,967,296 different axial positions.
If

the system resolution is, for example, BLU = 0.0001

in., this number can represent up to 429,969 in. possible
motions, which is more than enough for all types of
applications

CNC Controllers

Miscellaneous control signals

-a set of on/off signals to implement the control of

1. speed and direction of the spindle rotation,
2. control of coolant supply,
3. selection of cutting tool,
4. automatic clamping and unclamping, etc.

Advantages of CNC
Increased productivity
Reduced production costs
Facilitation of complex machining operations
Improved production planning and control
Facilitation of flexible automation
High accuracy and repeatability
Reduced indirect operating costs
Greater flexibility
Lower operator skill requirement

Disadvantages of CNC
High initial cost
Equipment and installation

High maintenance cost

Skilled CNC personnel required
Have to be installed in air-conditioned places
Not suitable for long run applications

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)
Direct numerical control (DNC) control of multiple

machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer

through direct connection and in real time
1960s technology
Two way communication

Distributed numerical control (DNC) network

consisting of central computer connected to machine

tool MCUs, which are CNC
Present technology
Two way communication

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)
- Bypasses the need for a MCU
- Processing of part programs are done on a centralized

computer
- Program transmitted to the MCU, one block at a time
(BTR)

Basic components
Mainframe computer
Connected via satellite computers or lengthy cables

Bulk memory
Communications network
NC machine tools

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)
Advantages:
Higher reliability than hardwired MCUs
Elimination or error prone tape and tape-reader
Control of multiple machines
Improved computational capability for circular
interpolations
Part programs stored in a central location
Computers located in an environmentally agreeable
location

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)
Types of DNC
- based on communication link between machine
tool and computer
1. Dedicated MC
- Similar to a CNC as MCU is hardwired

2. Behind the tape reader (BTR) interface

- cheaper to use
- easily implemented
- receives only the program of the part to be
manufactured

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)

Connection to MCU is behind the tape reader (BTR). In distributed NC,

entire programs are downloaded to each MCU, which is CNC rather than
conventional NC

Distributed Numeric Control

(DNC)
Similar to CNC computers
Improved data collection

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)

DNC switching network

configuration

Limitations
1. No of machines
2. Frequency of service required for each machine

Direct Numeric Control

(DNC)-LAN configuration

Adaptive Control
to adapt means to change a behavior to conform to

new circumstances.
An adaptive controller

a controller that can modify its behavior in

response to the changes in dynamics of the processes
and the disturbances acting on the process.
A self-correcting form of optimal control

Adaptive Control
In machining, it includes automatic adjustment of cutting

parameters like speeds, feeds, depth of cut, etc.

General
Configuration

Adaptive Control
Adaptive controller performs 3 functions
1. Identification
-

Identifies the current value of performance index

Functions continuously to be dynamic

2. Decision

- decide what changes have to be made to improve

system performance
3. Modification
- implement the decision

Adaptive Control
Two types of Adaptive control
Adaptive Control with optimization (ACO)
Adaptive Control with constraints (ACC)
ACO attempts to maximize IP index of

performance
IP = MRR/ TWR
MRR = Metal Removal Rate; TWR = Tool Wear Rate
usually an economic index of performance
eg: Maximum production rate, minimum production cost

Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control with Constraints (ACC)
Machining conditions are maximized within machine

constraints eg: maximum force or torque or power

Two sensors are employed
Tool vibration sensor accelerometer mounted on the

housing
Spindle torque sensor strain gauges mounted on the
machine spindle