GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING-1
DR.BINDHU LAL

MODULE 1-Nature of Soil,Phase

Representation and Relationships
Three Phase System
Soil, Water and Air- Do not occupy
separate spaces but are blended
together to form a complex material
Fig.1

Fig.2
V v = Va + Vw

Ww + Wa = Wv but Wa =0
Ww = W v

Water Content, Density and Unit

Weights
Water Content(w)= (Ww /Ws )* 100
Ws - Weight of solids
w=((W-Ws )/Ws )* 100
Density
i) Bulk Density ()=M/V (g/cm3) or
(Kg/m3)
ii) Dry Density (d) = Md /V
iii) Density of solids (s) = Md /Vs

 Saturated Density(sat )=(Total soil mass

of
saturated
sample)/Volume
Submerged Density( ) =(Md )sub /Volume
Unit Weight
Bulk Unit Wt.()= W/V
Dry Unit Wt.(d )=(Wd )/V
Unit Wt. of Solids .(s )=( Wd )/Vs

 Saturated Unit Wt.(sat )= )=(Total

wt.of
saturated soil
sample)/Volume
Submerged Unit Wt.( )=( Wd )sub /V
= (sat w ), w unit wt. of
water
w is taken as 9.81 KN/m3
1gm/cm3 =(9.81x 10-6 )/ 10-6 = 9.81
KN/m3
= 9.81x

 Specific Gravity (G)- Ratio of the

weight of a given volume of soil
solids at a given temperature to the
weight of an equal volume of distilled
water at that temp., both weights
being taken in air.
G = s / w
Voids ratio (e) - ratio of vol. of
voids to the vol. of soil solids =Vv / Vs

 Porosity (n) ratio of vol. of voids to

total volume = Vv /V
e expressed as fraction and n as
percentage voids

e
1

void
s
s
Solids

voids n
1+e
Solids

1
-n

If the volume of voids e then vol. of

solids-1

 Total volume 1+e

Similarly volume of voids-n, total
volume-1 and volume of solids-(1-n)
n = Vv /V = e/(1+e)
e = Vv / Vs = n/(1-n)
Combining above two eqns.
n= e/(1+e) =e(1-n) or (1-n) =1/(1+e)
Degree of Saturation(S) = Vw /Vv
ratio of the volume of water present
in a given soil mass to the total
volume of voids in it.

For a fully saturated sample S-1 and

for dry sample S-0
Percentage air voids (na )- ratio of
volume of air voids to total volume
(Va /V) x100
Air Content (ac ) - Va / Vv
Since Va = Vv - Vw ,ac = (Vv - Vw )/ Vv
=1-(Vw/ Vv )
= 1-S
Relative Density/Density Index
expresses degree of compaction. It is

Soil in its loosest state and its natural

voids ratio to the difference between
voids ratio in the loosest and
densest state.
ID = (emax e)/(emax - emin)for
cohesionless soil
When the natural state of the soil is in
its loosest form e= emax hence ID = 0
When the natural state of the soil is in
densest form e= emin hence ID = 1

 Functional Relationships
1) Relation between e, G w, S
S= Vw /Vv = ew /e hence
ew = e S,

Fig.4

Ai
r
Wate
r

e
ew

Solids
1

ew water voids ratio

For a fully saturated sample ew = e

w= (Ww /Wd)= (ew x w )/(s x1)

But G= s / w or s =G w
w = (ew x w )/ G w = ew /G , ew =wG
e= ew /S = (wG)/S For fully saturated S=1
then
e=wG
2.Relation between e,S, and na
na = (Va /V) but Va = Vv - Vw = e- ew and
V=Vs + Vv =1+e hence na = (e- ew )/ (1+e) ,
ew = e S
na =e(1-S)/(1+e)

3.Relation between d ,G and e (or

n)
d = Wd /V d = (s Vs )/V
From Fig.3 Vs = 1 and V = (1+e)
d =( s .1)/(1+e) but s =G w ,
d = (G w )/(1+e)
e = ((G w )/ d )-1
Also from Fig.3 Vs = (1-n) and V =1
d = (G w (1-n))/1 = (1-n) G w

4.Relation between sat , G and e

(or n)
sat = Total wt. of saturated soil
Total volume of soil
= (Wd + Ww )/V =( s Vs + w
Vw )/V
From Fig.3 Vs = 1 , Vw = e and V =
(1+e)
sat = (s 1 + w e )/(1+e)
IIIy From Fig.3 Vs = (1-n); Vw ; and V
=1

5.Relation between d , and w

W = Ww / Wd 1+w = =( Ww + Wd )/ Wd =W/ Wd
Wd = W/(1+w) but d = Wd /V= W/(1+w)V =/
(1+w)
6.Relation between , d and n
=(G-1) w /(1+e) =((G w )/(1+e)) (w )/
1+e))
= d (1-n) w
7.Relation between sat , , d and S
=((G+eS) w )/(1+e) or
=((G w )/(1+e))+S(e w )/(1+e)

= d +S (G+e) w - G w
(1+e)
(1+e)
= d +S (sat - d )
8.Relation between d ,G,w,S
d = = (G w )/(1+e) but e = wG /S
d = = (G w )/(1+wG/S)
When S=1 d = = (G w )/(wsat G)
9.Relation between d ,G,w and na
V=Va +Vw +Vs

V=Va +Ww / w + Wd / s
1=(Va /V) +(w Wd / V w )+ (Wd / V s )
= (Va /V) +(( w d )/ w )+ (d / s )
(1- (Va /V))=(( w d )/ w )+ (d / G w )
(1- na ) = (d / w )(w + 1/G)
d = (1- na ) w /(w)+(1/G)
d = ((1- na )G w )
(1+wG)

Structure of Soil
It is defined as the physical
constitution of a soil material as
expressed by the size, shape and
arrangement of the solid particles to
form compound particles and the
compound particles themselves.
Soil particle structure Deals with
the structure of individual atoms and
minerals
Soil mass structure Deals with the
pattern of arrangement of soil

Soil Particle Size and Shape

Range from gravel to finest size
possible
Particles > 0.075mm coarse grained
soils
< 0.075mm fine grained
soils
Coarse grained soils visible by naked
eye
Grain size between 0.075mm 2 visible under a microscope
Grain size between 2- 0.1 -can be

 Grains < 0.1- by means of electron

microscope
Gravel
Coarser fraction----Sand
Gravel- Fragments of rock
Sand- Quartz
Individual grains of sand and gravelangular, sub angular, sub-rounded or
well-rounded Silt
Clay
Finer fraction---- Silt and Clay- only one mineralangular, flake-shaped, needle shaped

Soil Texture
Texture refers to the size of the
particles that make up the soil. It is a
qualitative classification tool used in
both the field and laboratory to classify
the soil.
Soil texture is the % of sand, silt and
clay particles in the soil. Soil structure
is how those sand, silt and clay
particles
clump/bind/aggregate
together

Field Identification of Soils

Coarse Grained Soils mineral

fragments- identified on the basis of
grain size
Sand-0.075mm - 4.75mm

Coarse

Medium
Fine

(4.75-2)
(20.425)
(0.425 - .002)
Gravel -4.75mm 80mm

Fine Grained Soil Minerals

Dry Strength
Crush a 3mm size dried fragment between
thumb and forefinger. If it has to be broken
with great effort Clay. If crushes easily Silt
Shaking Test (Dilatancy Test)
A part of soil is mixed with water to a very soft
consistency and placed in the palm of the
hand. The surface of soil is smoothed out
with a knife and the soil pat is shaken by
tapping the back of the hand. If it is silt,
water will rise quickly to the

giving a shiny glistering appearance. If the pat

is deformed ,water will flow back into the soil
and the surface has a dull appearance. If the
soil is clay the surface of pat does not
change during shaking test as clay is less
permeable.
Plasticity Test
If a sample of moist soil can be rolled into a
long thread of about 3mm dia., the soil
contains significant amount of clay. Silt
cannot be rolled into threads without
cracking

 Dispersion Test
A small quantity of soil is allowed to
disperse in water taken in a glass
cylinder and allow to settle. The time
required for the particles to settle
through 10cm is noted down. Coarse
particles settle faster than fine ones
Sand particles 30 sec
Silt particles 30 min-240 min
Clay ,,
- hours - days

Organic Soils
Soils with organic matter-Weaker and
more compressible
Presence of organic matter dark grey
to black colour and odour of
decaying vegetation.
Organic Silt
Shells and visible fragments of partly
decayed vegetable matter
Organic Clay
Dark brown to black color, presence of
fibrous

Particles or vegetable matter in

varying states of decay, organic
odour, slight amount of heat.

MODULE 2

Index
Properties
Classification

and

Soil

Water Content
1.Oven drying method
2.Pycnometer method- For coarse grained soils and soils
whose specific gravity is known
Mass of pycnometer with cap-M1
Mass of pycnometer with cap + Soil-M 2
Mass of pycnometer with cap + Soil+ water(flush with the
cap) M3
Mass of pycnometer with cap + water M 4
w= M2 M1 G-1 -1
x 100
M3 M 4
G

Water

(1) M1

Wate
r
Solids

(2) M2

Wate
r

Solids

(3) M3

M4
Md mass of soil particles Vol.= M d /G
If solids from 3 replaced with water of
mass
Md /G then M4 = M3 - Md + Md /G
Md =( (M3 - M4 )G)/(G-1)

(4)

Mass of water Mw in the wet soil

sample= (M2 - M1 )- Md
w= Mw
Md

x 100 = (M2 - M1 )- Md

x100

Md

= (M2 - M1 )- 1 x100= (M2 - M1) (G1) -1 x100

Md
(M3 - M4)
G

 Specific Gravity

Pycnometer
Specific
Gravity Bottle
Weight of density bottle (W1 g)
Weight of density bottle + dry soil (W2
g)

Weight of bottle + dry soil + water (fill up to the top)

(W3 g)
Weight of bottle +water (fill up to the top)(W 4 g)
G=
W 2 W1
(W4 - W1) (W3 W2)
If Kerosene is used instead of water
G =
( W 2 W1 ) x Gk
Gravity
(W4 - W1) (W3 W2)

Gk -Specific
of Kerosene

Problem

The mass of a 50ml specific gravity bottle

is 65g.A sample of oven dried clay was
placed in the bottle and total mass found
to be 87g. The mass of bottle + clay +
kerosene filled to the top of capillary tube
of the stopper was found to be 270.5 g.
Finally the bottle full of kerosene only has
mass 255.3g. Sp.gravity of kerosene is
0.773.The temperature maintained while
taking the readings were 270C. What is
the specific gravity of soil?

Particle Size Distribution

To find the percentage of various sizes
of particles Particle size
analysis( Mechanical Analysis)

Sieve Analysis
Sedimentation
Analysis
Sieve analysis- coarse grained soils
Sedimentation Analysis fine grained
soils

Sieve Analysis
Divided into two parts Coarse analysis
and Fine analysis
Sample first separated into two
fractions by sieving through a
4.75mm IS sieve.
Portion retained gravel
fraction( coarse sieve analysis)
Portion passing finer fraction ( fine
sieve analysis)

Sieves for coarse analysis IS100,63,20,10 and 4.75mm

Sieves for fine analysis IS
-2mm,1mm, 600, 425, 300, 212, 150
and 75 micron
Sl
sieve Wt.retained %age
Cum.
Cum.
No. Size
in each
retain
retain passing
sieve
ed
ed

Sieves
Sieve
shaker

Sedimentation Analysis
For soil fraction finer than 75 micron
sieve
Based on Stokes law velocity at
which grains settle out of suspension,
all other factors being equal, is
dependent upon the shape, weight
and size of the grain. Assuming soil
particles are spherical and have
same sp.gravity, (terminal velocity
of sinking of a spherical particle)= 1
D2 s w

s = G w
= 1 D2 (G 1) w
18

D = ( (18x 106 )/(G-1) w )

= 1355 (( )/(G-1))
If a particle of dia. D mm falls through
a height He cm in t mins
= (He /60 t) cm/sec = (He /6000 t)
m/sec
Hence D= ( (18x 106 )/(G-1) )x

D = (3000 /(G-1) w ) x (He / t)

= 10-5 F (He / t)
=/g
F constant for given values of and G.
depends on temperature
Value of F obtained from table or
curves for various values of G and
temperature.
Sedimentation analysis is done with
the help of a hydrometer or pipette

Hydrometer method
Make a mixture of soil passing 75
micron sieve and water. Take it in a
graduated cylindrical vessel . Pour
water up to 1000ml mark.Shake it
thoroughly. After any time interval t,
if a sample of soil suspension is
taken from height He , only those
particles which have not settled
during this time will remain in the
suspension. The diameter of those
particles which are finer than those
settled can be found .

If, at any time interval, MD is the mass

per ml of all particles smaller than
the dia.D still in suspension at depth
He ,then the percentage finer N = MD
x 1000
(Md /V)
Md = total dry mass of soil
V = volume of suspension

Calibration of hydrometer
Readings on the hydrometer stem density of soil suspension situated at
the centre of the bulb at any time.
Reduced Reading(Rh )(actual reading
-1) x 1000
Let H be the height (cm) between any
hydrometer reading and the neck
and h ht. of bulb.
On immersion of hydrometer in jar
water level rises from aa to a1 a1 , the
rise being equal to

the volume of the hydrometer/internal

cross-section area of the jar
Level bb rises to b1 b1 where bb is at a
depth He below aa. Rise between bb
and b1 b1 equal to
Vh /2A
He =( H +( h/2) +(Vh /2A)) (Vh /A)
Two variables He and H which depends
on Rh
For various hydrometer readings Rh,He
can be obtained. A calibration curve

Test Procedure

After shaking the suspension thoroughly, keep

the cylinder on a solid base , insert the
hydrometer slowly in to the suspension and
start stop watch. Readings are taken at ,1,
2,4,8,15,30 mts and 1,2,24 hrs interval.
Corrections to hydrometer readings
Temperature correction(Ct ) calibrated at 270 C
If the temp. of soil suspension more than 27 0 C
Hydrometer reading will be less than what they
should be and hence correction + ve.

If temp.is < 270 C, correction -ve

Meniscus correction (Cm ) Since the
suspension is opaque, hydrometer
reading taken at the top of meniscus.
Actual reading to be taken at water
level, will be more since the readings
increase in the downward direction.
Hence correction positive.
Dispersion Agent correction(Cd)addition of dispersing agent in water
increases its density and hence
correction negative

R = Rh + Cm + Ct Cd
R = Rh + C where C Composite
correction
Take 100ml capacity cylinder filled with
distilled water and same quantity of
dispersing agent used in the test.
Temperature of both cylinders should
be same. Immerse the hydrometer
and note the reading at the top of
the meniscus. The negative of the
reading gives the composite
correction. If reading is +1, C is -1

Computation of D and N
For each hydrometer reading He is
obtained and hence D calculated.
R =(-1)1000 or = 1+ (R/1000)
Consider 1 ml of soil suspension, at a
time interval t, at the effective depth
He
If MD is mass of solids in 1ml
suspension
Mass of water = 1- (MD /G)
Total mass of 1 ml suspension =1- (MD

Equating 1+ (R/1000) = 1- (MD /G)+ MD

MD = R

1000 G-1
Substituting in N = MD x 1000
(Md /V)
Taking V =1000 ml
N = 100 G
Md(G-1)
N = %age finer w.r.t Md

Graph plotted to get particle size distribution

curve with percentage finer N as ordinate
and particle diameter as abscissa, the dia.
being plotted on logarithmic scale. Gives an
idea about the type and gradation of the
soil
Curve to the left fine grained soil
Curve to the right coarse grained soil
Soil well graded or poorly graded
( uniformly graded)
Well graded- good representation of particles
of all sizes

Poorly graded soils excess of certain

particles and deficiency of others
Uniformly graded soils most of the
particles same size
Gap grade (skip graded)- curve with a
flat portion in which some
intermediate size particles are
missing

For coarse grained soils certain particle

sizes are important
D10 = size in mm such that 10% of the
particles are finer than this size
effective size
D60 = size in mm such that 60% of the
particles are finer than this size
Cu ( uniformity coefficient) measure
of particle size range = D60 / D10
Cc (co-efficient of the curvature)
shape of particle size curve = (D30 )2/

Cu =1 uniformly graded soil

= 1-3 well graded soil
> 4 gravels
> 6 sands
50 g of oven dried sample is taken for
sedimentation analysis. The hydrometer
reading is 24.5.The meniscus correction is
+0.5 and composite correction is -2.50
.Calculate the smallest particle size which
would have settled during this interval of 30
mts and the percentage of particles finer
than this size.
G-2.72,-0.008 poise. Test temp.300

Value of factor F
Temperat
ure
0
C

29
30
31

(poise)

G =2.70

0.0081 1213
8
0.0080 1199
0
0.0078 1187
3

G =2.75

1195
1182
1170

Consistency limits
Consistency degree of firmness of
the soil /relative ease with which the
soil can be deformed soft, firm, stiff,
hard
Consistency Limits or Atterberg Limits
are the water contents at which the
soil mass passes from one state to
the next. They are Liquid limit, Plastic
Limit and Shrinkage Limit.

Liquid Limit (wL)

It is defined as the minimum water
content at which the soil is still in the
liquid state but has a small shearing
strength against flowing.
Plastic Limit (wP)
It is defined as the minimum water
content at which a soil will just begin
to crumble when rolled into a thread
approximately 3mm in diameter

Shrinkage Limit (wS)

It is defined as the maximum water
content at which a reduction in water
content will not cause a decrease in
volume of a soil mass.It is the lowest
water content at which a soil can still
be saturated.
Plasticity index (IP )
The range of consistency within which
a soil exhibits plastic properties is
called plastic range. IP = wL - wP

Consistency index (IC ) or Relative

consistency
Ratio of liquid limit minus natural
water content to the plasticity index
of a soil
IC = (wL w) / IP - useful in the study
of field behaviour of saturated fine
grained soil
If IC = 1 soil is at the plastic limit
= 0 soil is at the liquid limit
> 1 soil is in a semi-solid state

A negative consistency index indicates

that the soil has natural water
content > liquid limit and hence
behaves like a liquid
Liquidity index ( water plasticity
ratio) (IL )
Ratio of natural water content of a soil
minus plastic limit to plasticity index
expressed as a percentage
IL = (w wP) / IP

Determination of liquid and plastic

limits
Apparatus for LL- Casagrande apparatus
Soil sample passing through 425 micron
sieve is mixed thoroughly with distilled
water in a dish to make a uniform paste. A
portion of the paste is kept on the cup of
the casagrande apparatus and spread
into position. A groove is cut in the soil
pat. The handle is rotated at a rate of
about 2 rev./min. and the number of blows
are counted until the two parts of the

soil sample comes into contact at the

bottom of the groove.Take about 10 g of
soil from the groove and keep it in oven for
water content determination. Take the soil
sample from the cup and repeat the
procedure with different water contents. A
graph is plotted between number of blows
( abscissa) on logarithmic scale and water
content (ordinate).The graph (flow curve)
is a straight line whose eqn is
w1-w2 =If log10 (n2 /n1 ) where w1&w2 are
water contents corresponding to n1 & n2 , If
slope of the curve known as flow index

Plastic Limit Determination

Soil specimen passing through 425
micron sieve is mixed thoroughly
with distilled water until soil mass
becomes plastic enough to be easily
moulded with fingers. The paste is
made into a ball and rolled between
the fingers and a glass plate into a
thread of uniform dia. through out its
length. The process of rolling is
repeated until the thread starts
crumbling at a dia. of 3mm. The
crumbled threads are kept for water

repeated twice more with fresh

samples. The plastic limit is the
average of 3 water contents.
Toughness index (IT ) = Plasticity
index/Flow index = IP / If
Shrinkage Limit Determination
(M1)
(M2)
(V (Md)
V)
1

Wate
r

Original soil pat

soil pat
V
V1

Soil pat at SLAir

Wate
r

Solid
s

Solid
s

Dry

Vd
Solid
s

Vs

Let V1 ,M1 and V2 ,M2 be the volume

and mass of original soil sample and
at shrinkage limit respectively . Vd
and Md is the volume and mass of
oven dried sample
V2 = V d
by definition
Mass of water in (a) - M1 - Md
Loss of water from (a) to (b) (V1 V2)w
Mass of water in (b) (M1 - Md ) - (V1 V2)w

wS = w1 - (V1 - Vd)w X 100

Md
= w1 - (V1 - Vd) w X 100
Wd
w1 - water content of the original saturated
sample
Wd - dry weight of the soil sample
The volume V1 of the shrinkage is determined
by filling it to overflow with mercury,
removing the excess by pressing a flat glass
plate over its top. The mass of the mercury
in the dish/ its

density (13.6 g/cm2) gives volume.

Take about 50g of soil passing
through 425 micron sieve and mix
thoroughly with distilled water to
make a paste. Take the empty wt. of
dish. Coat the inside of shrinkage
dish with Vaseline and fill the dish
with soil paste gently tapping for the
expulsion of air. The excess soil is
struck off with straight edge. Weigh
the dish again with soil. Difference in
wt. gives V1.The dish is then placed
in oven and mass M of dry soil pat is

glass cup is first filled with mercury and

excess mercury removed by pressing the
glass plate with three prongs firmly over the
top. The dry soil pat is kept on the surface of
the mercury of the cup and carefully forced
down by means of glass plate with prongs.
The mass of mercury displaced / density of
mercury gives volume of dry soil pat.
Shrinkage limit is calculated using the
formulae.
Value of G from shrinkage limit test
s =G w = (Md x 9.81)
Vs

Vs = V1 - (M1 - Md ) ; G = Md =
w
w
w- (M1 - Md)

Vs

Md
V1

w -1g/cm3
G=

Md
V1 - (M1 - Md )

Relationship between G and wS

wS = (Vd Vs ) w x 100 = Vd Md w
x 100

wS = Vd - 1 100
Md G
Shrinkage Ratio
Ratio of a given volume change
expressed as a percentage of dry
volume, to the corresponding
change in water content above the
SL expressed as a percentage of the
weight of oven dried sample
SR = V1 V2 x 100 / (w1 w2 )
Vd

V1, V2 Volume of soil mass at water

content w1 , w2 respectively.
V2 = Vd and w2 = ws
SR = V1 Vd x 100 / (w1 ws )
Vd
w1- ws = (V1 - Vd)w x 100
Md
Hence SR = Md /(Vd w ) = d / w = d /
w

Volumetric Shrinkage is defined as

the decrease in the volume of a soil
mass, expressed as a percentage of
the dry volume of the soil mass,
when water content is reduced from
a given percentage to the shrinkage
limit.
VS = V1 Vd x 100 but V1 Vd x 100 =
(w1- ws )SR
Vd
VS = (w1- ws )SR

Vd

wS = (Vd Vs ) w x 100 = Vd Md w
x 100
Md
s Md
wS = Vd w 1 100
- 1 100
d

Md
G

But d = (Gw )/(1+e)

Hence wS = e/G

w - 1 100 = w
d

The atterberg limits of a clayey soil are LL-52%,

PL-30% and SL-18%.If the specimen shrinks
from a volume of 39.5 cm3 at liquid limit to a
volume of 24.2 cm3 at the shrinkage limit,
calculate the true specific gravity.
A saturated soil sample has a volume of 25 cm 3
at the LL. If the soil has liquid limit and
shrinkage limit of 42, % and 20% respectively
determine the minimum volume which can be
attained by the soil specimen.G=2.72

Activity of clays

Plasticity depends on nature of clay mineral

present and amount of clay mineral present.
Plasticity index is directly proportional to %
age of clay-size fraction.(Skempton)
Activity is defined as the ratio of plasticity
index to the percent by weight of soil
particles of diameter smaller than two
microns present in the soil. Ac = Ip /Cw .
Based on activity number clays can be
classified as Ac < 0.75 - Inactive, Ac -0.75
- 1.4- Normal
Ac >1.4 - Active

Sensitivity of clay
Consistency of undisturbed sample of
clay is altered even at the same
water content when it is remoulded
because of the change in structure of
clay while remoulding.This degree of
disturbance is expressed by
sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of its unconfined
compressive strength in the natural
or undisturbed state to that in
remoulded state without any change

Soil Classification
To arrange soils into various groups.
Textural classification
Soil classification based on the particle
size distribution. Also known as
triangular classification. Based on the
%age of sand, silt and clay sizes.
More suitable for coarse grained soils
rather than clay soils whose
properties are less dependent on the
particle size distribution.

If a soil is composed of 30% sand, 30% silt and

40% clay, three lines are drawn parallel to the
three sides of the triangle, which will
intersect at a single point. The sector in
which the point lies will be nature of soil.
Unified Soil Classification (USCS)
Classified into 4 groups i) coarse grained ii)
Fine grained iii) Organic soils iv) Peat
Group symbol consists of prefix and suffix
There are in all 15 groups-8 groups of coarse
grained soil,6 groups of fine grained
soils(including organic soils) and 1group for
peat

SOIL TYPE

PREFIX

SUB GROUP

SUFFIX

Gravel

Well graded

Sand

Poorly graded

Silt

Silty

Clay

Clayey

Organic

wL

< 50%

wL

> 50%

Peat

Pt

Soils first classified into coarse grained and

fine grained soils
Coarse grained soils
More than 50% retained on 75 micron
(No.200 US sieve) coarse grained soil
More than 50% retained on 4.75mm (No.4
US sieve- Gravel (G)
Otherwise sand. Coarse grained soils
containing less than 5% fines GW and
SW if they are well graded and GP and SP
if they are poorly graded. If percentage of
fines is > 12% - GM ( silty gravel)

GC (clayey gravels),SM (silty sands)

and SC(clayey sands)
If percentage of fines between 5%12%, designated by dual symbols
GW-GM or
SP-SM
Fine grained soils
More than 50% passes No.200 US
sieve
Subdivided into silt(M) and clay(C)
based on liquid limit and plasticity
index

Eqn for A-line IP =0.73(wL 20).

A line separates clay like minerals from
those that are silty and also organic soils
from inorganic soils.
Further subdivided into soils possessing
low (L) or high (H) plasticity when w L <
50% or wL >50% respectively.
Soils possessing characteristics of more
than one group boundary soils
-designated by dual symbols
GW-GC- soil is well graded gravel with
some clay fines

Inorganic soils (ML-MH) and organic

soils(OL-OH) can be distinguished by
oven drying method. If the LL of the soil
decreases by 30% or more it is organic
Indian Standard Classification
System, ISCS(IS : 1498-1970)
Based on USCS.
Fine grained soils subdivided into 3 groups
(low, medium and high plasticity)
ISCS classifies the soil into 18 groups as
against 15 groups of USCS

Divisions
Soil
Coarse
Fine
organic soil &
grained
grained
miscellaneous

Highly
other
soil

material
Coarse grained - more than half the
total material by mass is larger than
75 sieve

Coarse grained soils

Gravels (G)
More than half the
coarse fraction is
larger than 4.75 mm
IS sieve
W
Well
graded
clean

C
Well
graded
with excellent
clay binder

Sands(S)
More than half the
coarse fraction is
smaller than 4.75mm
IS sieve
P
Poorly
graded
fairly clean

M
Contains fine
materials not
covered in
other groups

Gravel(G)

Boulder Cobble
(>30cm) (30cm80mm)

Coarse
(80mm
20mm)

Fine
(20mm4.75mm)

Sand(S)
Coarse
4.75-2 mm
sieve
sieve

Medium
2mm-425
sieve

Fine
425-75

Fine grained soils

M
C
O
Inorganic silt and
Inorganic
Organic silts and
Very fine sands
clays
silts and clays
organic
matter
Fine grained soils are further divided into
Silts and clays of low compressibility (L) - w L < 35
Silts and clays of low compressibility (I)- w L > 35
and wL <
50
Silts and clays of high compressibility (H)- w L > 50
MI-Inorganic silt with low compressibility

The following data on consistency

limits are available for two soils A
and B

1. Plastic limit

Soil A

Soil B

16%

19%

2.Liquid limit

30%

52%

3. Flow Index

11

4. Water content

32%

40%

Find which soil is a) more plastic b)

better foundation material on
remoulding c) better shear strength
as a function of water content d)
better shear strength at plastic limit.
Classify the soil a per ISCS.

MODULE 3

Soil Moisture Relationship

Capillarity
Free water / Ground water Subsurface
water that fills the voids continuously and
subjected to no force other than gravity.
Observed in wells and bore holes
Adsorbed water comprises of
hygrocsopic water and film water
Hygroscopic water or contact moisture is
that water which the soil particles freely
adsorb from atmosphere by physical force
of attraction

and held by force of adhesion.

Film moisture is attached to the surface of
soil particles as a film on the hygroscopic
film. It can migrate on the application of
external energy.
Adsorbed water is considered as bound
water which is a part of effective soil
particle.
Capillary water water which is lifted up
by surface tension above the free ground
surface. The capillary water fills all the
pores in the soil to a certain distance
above the water table (zone of saturation)

Capillarity or capillary action is the

phenomenon of movement of water
in the inerstices of a soil due to
capillary forces.
Factors on which capillary forces
depends on- surface tension of
water, pressure in water in relation to
atmospheric pressure, size and
conformation of soil pores.
Surface tension (Ts ) is the property
which exists in the surface film of
water tending to contract the

Due to the attraction of molecules on the

surface by other molecule on the
surface and inside the body of the liquid
and also since there is no pull from
outside, the surface molecules are
pulled towards the inside of the liquid
mass tending to reduce the surface to a
minimum.
Ts for water -0.728 x 10-6 KN/cm
Capillary Rise
The pores of soil acts as capillary tubes
extending above water table. The rise
of water is due to surface tension which

The ht of capillary rise depends on the

fineness of pores (dia. of capillary
tube) and value of surface tension.
The formation of a concave meniscus
will take place if the inner walls are
initially wet. If the wall is dry a
convex meniscus depressed below
the water surface is formed. Since
the soil pores carry adsorbed water
the meniscus formation in soil will
always be concave.
Let d=inner dia. of tube, hc = capillary
rise

equilibrium has reached. At equilibrium

position
Wt.of water column = vertical
component of reaction of meniscus
against the inside circumference of
the tube
d2 hc w = d Ts cos
4
hc =(4 Ts cos )/( w d)
If tube is perfectly clean and wet , a
semi-spherical meniscus will be
formed , =0

Substituting the values of Ts and w at 40 C

(hc )max = (0.3084/d)cm
And at 200 C (hc )max = (0.2975/d)cm
Capillary Tension, Capillary Potential and
Soil Suction
The water in the tube below free surface will be in
hydrostatic compression. At any height h above
the water table, the stress u will be
h w (tension).
The pressure is atmospheric at A and B. Since the
point C is at the same level as A, according to law
of
hydraulics, the pressure at C is also atmospheric.

Since the pt D which is just below the

meniscus is higher than pt C by head
hc , the pressure at D must be less
than atmospheric by hc w Hence the
pressure at any point in water
between C and D is less than
atmospheric, which means the water
above the point C is in tension, if
atmospheric pressure is considered
as zero. Whereas the pressure in
water below the free surface A is
above atmospheric and is in
compression

From the Fig.

d/2 =R cos or d=2 R cos
Hence hc =(4 Ts cos )/( w2 R cos )
=( 4 Ts )/ (w2 R)
Maximum tension at the level of meniscus(u c )
= w hc = w (4 Ts )/ (w2 R) = (2 Ts )/R
Thus max.tensile stress is inversely proportional
to radius of meniscus
When =0, R=d/2 (uc )max = (4 Ts )/ d
The tensile stress in water is called the
capillary
tension or capillary potential. It is the
pressure

deficiency or negative
pressure(pressure below
atmosphere) in the pore water by
which water is retained in a soil
mass. It decreases linearly from a
max. value at the level of meniscus
to zero value at free water surface.
The pressure deficiency in the held
water is known as soil suction or
suction pressure.
It is measured by the height hc in cm
to which a water column could be

pressure(g/cm2) is known as pF value

pF= log10 (hc )
If pF=2, soil suction of 100cm of water or
suction
pressure 100 g/cm2
Factors affecting soil suction
1.Particle size of soil- smaller the size of particle,
smaller the pore size, small radii of meniscus
resulting in greater capillary rise and hence
greater suction.
2.Water content smaller water content, greater
soil suction. Soil suction is max. when soil is dry.

3.Plasticity index of soil- soil suction greater for

a soil having greater plasticity index
4.History of drying and wetting-For the same soil
suction is greater during drying cycle than
wetting cycle.
5.Soil structure size of interstices-change in
structure of soil, change in the size of interstices
change in soil suction
6.Temperature- Rise in temp.,decrease in
surface
tension, hence decrease in soil suction

7.Denseness of soil Increase in

denseness,
decrease in size of pores and hence
increase in
soil suction.
8.Angle of contact- soil suction
decreases with
Increase in contact angle().Soil
suction
maximum when =0
9.Dissolved salts in pore waterImpurities

Capillary pressure
Capillary pressure and capillary tension are
numerically equal at the level of meniscus.
Meniscus transfers its surface tension force from
liquid circumferentially around the wall of
capillary tube( solid particles forming the voids)
causing capillary pressure. This will cause a
compressive stress on the soil particle.
Capillary pressure distribution is rectangular and
magnitude same at all heights above free
surface

Capillary pressure transferred from

grain to
grain is called intergranular or
effective
pressure.
When water at 200 C is added to a fine
sand and
to a silt a difference in capillary rise of
25cm is
observed between 2 soils.If the
capillary rise in
Fine sand is 25 cm, calculate the

Stress conditions in soil

The total pressure() at any plane in a soil mass
consists of two components
1. Intergranular pressure or effective pressure
() pressure transmitted from particle
through their point of contact through the soil
mass above the plane. Effective in decreasing
the voids ratio of the soil mass and in mobilizing
its
shear strength.
2.Neutral pressure or pore pressure(u)is the
pressure transmitted through pore fluid. Since it

does not have any influence voids

ratio or on
the shearing resistance, it is also
known as
neutral pressure. Hence total pressure
= + u
At any plane the pore water pressure is
equal to
piezometric head hw times unit wt. of
water.
U = hw w

Effective pressure for different

conditions of soil water system
1.Submerged soil mass
C

Z1
B

Water

B
hw

Z
A

Saturate
d
Soil

Effective pressure distribution diagram

Total pressure at AA will be

= Z sat + Z1 w and u = w hw
= - u = Zsat + Z1 w - w hw
= Z sat + Z1 w - w (Z+ Z1 )= Z(sat
w )=Z
At BB the total pressure is Z1 w and
hence effective pressure is zero
2.Soil mass with surcharge
At level AA, total pressure = q+Z1
+ Z sat
u = w hw = w Z

Z1

Surcharge q
C
Z1

Z + Z1
+q

C
Moist
soil

Saturat
ed Soil

hw

At plane BB, = q+Z1 , u = 0 hence

=
= q+Z1
At plane CC = =q

3.Saturated soil with capillary

Soil saturated
fringe Z
by capillarity
1

x
hc

Z1
Z1

B
Z

(Z+ Z1 )
(Z+ Z1 ) +Z1
w
= Z+ Z1 sat

B
Saturated
soil

hw
A

Due to capillarity a capillary pressure

is induced
which is also the intergranular

effective in reducing voids ratio. This pressure

is
equal to hc w = Z1 w
At AA = Z sat + Z1 sat , u = Z w
= u = Z sat + Z1 sat - Z w = Z + Z1
sat
At BB = Z1 sat u=0 hence = Z1 sat
At CC
= Z1 w
At any depth x below level CC
= x sat
u = -(Z1 x) w (-pressure due to weight of
water hanging below that level)
= u = x sat +(Z1 x) w = x + Z1 w

1)The water table in a deposit of sand 8m thick

is at a depth of 3m below the surface. Above
the water table, the sand is saturated with
capillary water. The bulk density of sand is
19.63 KN/m2.Calculate the effective pressure at
1m,3m and 8m below the surface. Plot the
variation of total pressure, neutral pressure and
effective pressure over the depth of 8m.
2)A layer of saturated clay 5m thick is overlain
by sand 4m deep.The water table is 3m below

the top surface. The saturated wt of

clay and
sand are 18 KN/m2 and 20 KN/m2
respectively.
Above the water table, the unit wt of
sand is
17 KN/m2 .Calculate the effective
pressure on a
horizontal plane at a depth of 9m
below ground
surface.What will be the increase in
the effective

3)
A

5
m

4
m
C

Sand

3
m

e=0.5,S=40%,G=2
.67
WT
B

Clay

w= 40%, G=2.7
C

For the subsoil conditions shown draw

the
total, neutral and effective stress
diagrams up to
a depth 9m neglecting capillary flow

Compute the total, effective and pore

pressure
at a depth 20m below the bottom of a
lake 6m
deep. The bottom of lake consists of
soft clay
with a thickness of more than
20m.The average
water consent of clay is 35% and
sp.gravity 2.65

Permeability of Soils
Permeability is defined as the property of a
porous material which permits the passage or
seepage of water through its interconnecting
voids. A material having continuous voids is
called permeable.
Gravels- highly permeable
Clay- impermeable
Flow of water through soils can be laminar
flow
or turbulent flow

Laminar flow- each fluid particle travels along a

definite path which never crosses the path of
any other particle.
Turbulent flow- the paths are irregular and
twisting, crossing and re-crossing at random.
Darcys law
For laminar conditions in a saturated soil, the
rate of flow or discharge per unit time is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
q=k i A v=q/A =ki

h1 - h 2
h1

L
h2
Soil
Sample

where q = discharge per unit time

A= total cross-sectional area of soil
mass perpendicular to the direction
of flow
i= hydraulic gradient
K= Darcys coefficient of permeability
v= velocity of flow or discharge
velocity

If a soil sample of length L and crosssectional

area A, is subjected to differential
head of water
(h1 h2), hydraulic gradient i = (h1
h2)/L
q = k (h1 h2) A
L
when i=1, k=v
Thus the coefficient of permeability is
defined as
the average velocity of flow that will
occur

Discharge velocity and seepage

velocity

The velocity of flow v is the rate of

discharge
per unit of total cross sectional area
A of soil.
Total c.s.a is composed of area of
solids(As ) and
area of voids(Av ).Since the flow takes
through
the voids, the actual or true velocity of
flow will

water per unit cross-sectional area of

voids
perpendicular to the direction of flow
q= vA =vs Av ; vs =v A
but
Av
= Vv = n
Av
V
vs = v 1 = 1+e v
n
e
Seepage velocity vs is also
proportional to

Validity of Darcys flow

Darcys law is valid only for laminar conditions.
Flow is laminar so long as the velocity of flow
is less than a lower critical velocity v c expressed
in terms of Reynolds number
vc d w = 2000
g
Flow through soil depends on the dimensions of
pore spaces. In coarse grained soils where pore
dimensions are large flow may become
turbulent.

Experimental results shows that flow

through
sands remain laminar and Darcys law
valid so
long as Reynolds no. is equal to or less
than
unity.
v Da w 1 v=velocity of flow, Da
=particle size
g
Substituting =1x10-5 g-sec/cm2; g =
981cm/sec2

Factors
affecting
permeability
Comparing Poiseuilles law with Darcys law, we
Get k=(Ds )2 w e3 C
1+e
1) Grain size Permeability varies as the
square of the size of the grain.
2) Properties of pore fluid Permeability is
directly proportional to the unit weight of water
and inversely proportional to viscosity. Though
unit wt. does not change with temperature,
there is

great variation in viscosity with temperature.

3) Voids ratio A semi-logarithmic plot of voids
ratio vs permeability is approximately a straight
line for both coarse grained as well as fine
grained soils.
4) Effect of structural arrangement of particles
and stratification- The structural arrangement
of particles may be entirely different for a
disturbed sample as compared to a undisturbed
sample. Stratified soil masses have marked
variations in their permeability in direction
parallel

and perpendicular to stratification, the

permeability parallel to the
stratification being
greater.
5) Entrapped air and foreign-matterThe
permeability is greatly reduced if air is
entrapped in the voids thus reducing
its degree
of saturation. Organic matter also has
the
tendency to move towards critical flow

6) Effect of adsorbed water The adsorbed

water surrounding the fine-soil particles is not
free to move and reduces the effective pore
space.
Determination of coefficient of
permeability by laboratory methods
1)Constant Head Permeability Test (Coarse
grained Soils)
Water flows from the overhead tank kept at a
height H from the level of water at the bottom
tank through the soil sample. Hydraulic gradient

i causing the flow = (difference in

water level
between overhead and bottom tank)/
length L
of sample
If Q is the total quantity of flow in a
time interval
t , q=Q/t = k i A or k = Q 1 = Q L
1
t iA
t
h A
Falling Head Permeability test (Fine

allowed to run down. Once a steady

state of
flow is reached observations are
started. The
head at any instant t is the difference
in water
level in the stand pipe and bottom
tank. Let h1
and h2 be heads at time interval t1
and t2
respectively and dh be the change in
head in a

Integrating between two time limits

A k (t2 t1) = loge h1 taking (t2 t1) =t

aL
h2
k= aL loge h1 = 2.3 aL log10 h1
At
h2
At
h2

Permeability of stratified soil deposits

Soil mass consists of several layers deposited
one above the other. Their bedding planes can
be horizontal, inclined or vertical. Each layer
assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic, has
its own value of coefficient of permeability. The
average permeability of the whole deposit
depends upon the direction of flow.
Average permeability parallel to the planes
Let Z1, Z2,.. Zn = thickness of layers and k1,
k2,

z1
z2
v
q

z
3

z4

k
1

k
Z
2
k3
k4

v1

q1

v2

q2
v3

q3

v4

q4
ofv

.kn = permeabilities
theqlayers.
Since
flow
k
zn
n
n
n
is
parallel hydraulic gradient i is same for all layers.
Since v=ki and k is different, velocity of flow will
be

different. Let kx be the average

permeability
Total discharge through the soil deposit
= sum of
discharge through individual layers
q= q1 + q2 ++ qn
q = kx i z=k1i z1 +k2 i z2 ++kn i zn
kx = k1z1 +k2 z2 ++kn zn
z
Average permeability perpendicular to
the

z1

i1

z2

i2
i3

z3
zn

in

v
v
v

same through each layer. Hydraulic

gradient and
Head loss through each layer will be
different.

h = h1 + h2 + h3 + hn
But h1=i1z1 ; h2=i2z2. ; hn=inzn
h =i1z1 +i2z2 +.+inzn
If kz is the average permeability
perpendicular to
the bedding plane
v = kz i = kz h or h = vz
also i1=
v ; i2= v
z
k1

kz

k2

Substituting these values

kz =

z
z1 + z2 +zn
k1
k2
kn
For any soil mass kx > kz
A sample of filter sand was tested in a constant
head permeameter. The size of the sample was
11 cm dia. and 15 cm height. A hydrostatic head
of 50cm was applied for a period of 10 sec and a
quantity of water equal to 3000c.c was collected
Find the coefficient of permeability of sand?

A falling head permeability test was

performed
on a sample of clean uniform sand.
The initial
hydraulic head was 900mm, the final
head was
400mm and 60 sec were required for
the water
level to fall The C.S.A.of stand pipe
was 100mm2
The sample was of 40mm dia. and had
a length

Seepage Analysis
Head, Gradient and Potential
When water flows through a saturated soil mass
the total head consists of a) piezometric head or
pressure head b) velocity head c) position head
Piezometric head at A (hw )a
Piezometric head at B (hw )b
At any intermediate point, the piezometric head
is equal to the height through which water rises
in a piezometric tube inserted at that point.

A
H

Piezometric
surface

(hw)a

H
Datum

Za

(hw)
(hw)b

Zb

c
b

A piezometric surface is the line joining

the
water levels in the piezometers. The
vertical
distance between the piezometric

and b is called the initial hydraulic gradient H

under which the flow takes place. The position
head or elevation head is the elevation of that
point with respect to any arbitrary datum.
Z is + ve if situated above datum and ve if
below datum.
The velocity head v2/2g is negligibly small for
the flow of water through soil and is neglected.
Total head at any point is the potential energy
per unit weight of water measured with
respect
to datum.

Total head = piezometric head +

position head
Flow occurs when there is a difference
in total
head or potential energies or simply
potential.
Potential at b= (hw )b Zb and at a =(hw
)a Z a
= H = initial hydraulic head. Hydraulic
head may
be designated as hydraulic potential
(h).

Seepage Pressure
Due to viscous friction exerted on water flowing
through soil pores, an energy transfer is effected
between the water and the soil. The force
corresponding to this energy transfer is called
the seepage force or seepage pressure. Thus
seepage pressure is the pressure exerted by
water on the soil through which it percolate.
If h is the hydraulic head or head lost due to
frictional drag flowing through a soil mass of
thickness Z, the seepage pressure is p s = hw

ps = h Z w = i Z w
Z
The seepage force J = ps A = i Z w A
Seepage force per unit volume =( i Z
w A)/ Z A
= i w
The seepage pressure always act in
the direction
of flow. The vertical effective pressure
may be
increased or decreased, due to the
seepage

If the slow occurs in the downward direction,

the effective pressure is increased and hence
+
sign and if in the upward direction, effective
pressure is decreased and hence - sign
Upward Flow: Quick Condition
When flow takes in the upward direction, the
seepage pressure also acts in the upward
direction and effective pressure is reduced. If
the seepage pressure becomes equal to the
pressure due to submerged weight of soil, the
effective pressure is reduced to zero.In such a

case cohesionless soil loses all its shear strength

and the soil particles have a tendency to move
up in the direction of flow. This phenomenon of
lifting of soil particles is called quick condition,
boiling condition or quick sand
=Z - ps = 0 or ps = Z
or i Z w = Z
i = ic = / w = (G-1)/(1+e)
The hydraulic gradient at such a critical state is
called the critical hydraulic gradient. Quick sand
is not a type of sand but a flow condition.

1) In an experimental set up as shown flow is

taking place under a constant head through
the
soils 1 & D2 of different hydraulic properties.

overflo
w

0.40m
0.25m
0.30
m

C
B
A

Soil 2
Soil 1

a)Determine the hydraulic head and

peizometric
heads at the pt.A

b) If 40% excess hydrostatic pressure

is lost in
flowing through soil A, then what is
the
hydraulic and piezometric head at
pt.B?
c) If the permeability of soil 1 is
0.40mm/s, what
quantity of water is flowing through
unit plan
area of the soil per second?
d)What is the coefficient of

and specific gravities of soil 1 and soil 2 are

e=0.55,G =2.65 and e=0.65,G=2.70 respectively?
f)Determine the hydraulic head at which
instability occurs.
2) A trench is to be excavated 240m away from a
river. The trench has to run parallel to the river
and is to be 300m long. Water level is to be
maintained 6m above the lower confining layer
And 3m below the water level in the river.
Determine the rate at which water should be
pumped from the trench if hydraulic conductivity
is
4.5m/day.

Two Dimensional flow- Laplace Equation

Vy
x
Vx

vx + vx x
x

vy + vy y
y

Assumptions made for the analysis

1. The saturated porous medium is
incompressible

2.The seeping water flows under a hydraulic

gradient which is due to gravity loss or Darcys
law is valid.
3. There is no change in the degree of
saturation
in the zone of soil through which water seeps
and the quantity of water flowing into any
element of volume is equal to the quantity
which flows out in the same length of time.
4. The hydraulic conditions at entry and exit
are
known.
5. Water is incompressible

Consider an element of soil of size x,

y and of
unit thickness perpendicular to the
plane of
paper. Let vx , vy be the entry velocity
components in x and y directions. Then
vx + vx x and vy + vy y
will
be the
x
y
corresponding velocity components at
exit.
Quantity of water entering the element

vx (y . 1) + vy(x.1) = vx + vx x
(y . 1)+
x
vy +
vy y (x.1)
y
From which vx + vy = 0
x
As per assumption 2

kx and ky are coefficients of

permeability in x
and y directions
Substituting 2(kx h) + 2(ky h) = 0
x2

y2

For an isotropic soil kx = ky = k

2h + 2h = 0
potential
x2 y2
2 + 2 = 0

= kh = velocity

Laplace equation of

Velocity Potential () is defined as

a scalar
function of space and time such that
its
derivative with respect to any direction
gives the
fluid velocity in that direction.
=k h = k ix = vx
=k h = k
iy = v y
x
x
y
y
The solution can be obtained by
1) analytical methods 2) graphical

The solution gives two set of curves

known as
equipotential lines and stream
lines(flow lines)
mutually orthogonal to each other.
The equipotential lines contours of
equal head
(potential)
Stream lines path along which
individual
particles of water seep through the
soil.

Analytical solution
Considering one dimensional flow like
that in a
permeameter, in the direction Laplace
eqn.
reduces to 2h = 0
x2
By integrating it twice h = C1 and h
= C1x+ C2
x
Boundary conditions At x = 0 , h= H
or HL

h = - H L x + H L = HL - HL x
L
L
As the boundary conditions cannot be described
by simple algebraic relations, direct soln. of
Laplace eqn. becomes difficult and complex for
seepage problems. Hence graphical method is
made use of.
Graphical Method of Flow Net construction
Properties of flow net
1.The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at
right angles to one another.

2. The fields are approximately

squares, so that
a circle can be drawn touching all the
four sides
of the square
3.The quantity of water flowing
through each
flow channel is the same. Similarly the
same
potential drop occurs between two
successive
equipotential lines.

5.In a homogenous soil, every

transition in the
shape of the curve is smooth, being
either
elliptical or parabolic in shape.
Explicit Trial method of flow net
construction
1. One trial flow line is sketched
adjacent to a boundary flow line
2. After choosing the first trial line, the
flow path
between the line and boundary line

extended to meet the bottom flow line

at right
angles keeping in view that lines
drawn should
be smooth without any abrupt
transitions.
3. The remaining flow lines are next
drawn,
adhering rigorously to square figures.
4. If the first trial is chosen properly,
the net
drawn satisfies all the necessary

5.In such a case, a second trial line should be

chosen and the procedure repeated.
Application of flow net
i) Determination of seepage discharge
ii) Determination of hydrostatic pressure
iii) Determination of seepage pressure
iv) Determination of exit gradient
Determination of seepage discharge
Fig. shows the portion of a flow net. The portion
between any two successive flow lines is known
as flow channel. The portion enclosed between

Equipotential lines
with
head difference
q
q

Flow lines
Field

b
l

The portion enclosed between two

successive
equipotential lines and two successive
flow lines
Is known as field.

Let h and l be the width and length of

field, h
be the head drop through this field, q
represents the discharge passing
through the
flow channel per unit length of
structure. Then
from Darcys law
q =k i A = k h (b x 1) = k h b
l
l
If Nd represents total number of
potential drops

equal to difference of upstream and

downstream heads
q = k H b
Nd l
Total discharge through the entire flow
net =q=
Discharge through one channel x No.of
channels
q =k H b Nf where Nf total no. of
channels in
Nd l
the flow
net

Determination of hydrostatic
(uplift) pressure
Hydrostatic pressure u=hw w
hw = h z where h= hydraulic potential at the
point under consideration and Z= position head
All the three quantities can be expressed as the
percentage of total hydraulic head.
The above equation can be used to plot pressure
net representing lines of equal water pressure
( piezometric head) within the saturated soil mass

To plot a point corresponding to h w =20% on

h= 30%. On h = 30% line locate z= 3020=10%
which gives hw =20% .Similarly to get hw =20%
on h=40%, get the point where z= 20%. The
various so obtained may be joined by a smooth
curve to get a contour for hw =20% .
Analytically
The hydrostatic head at a point h w = h z
h= H-n h
n= no. of potential drops up to that point
h = H/Nd Then hydrostatic pressure u=h w w

Determination of Seepage Pressure

The hydraulic potential h at any point

located
after n potential drops, each of value
h is given
by h= H-n h
Seepage pressure ( ps ) = h w =( H-n
h ) w
which acts in the direction of flow
Determination of Exit Gradient
ie = h/l where h and l represents

Flow net
analogy

by

electrical

Darcys law governing the flow of

water is
analogous to Ohms law governing the
flowlaw
ofof water
Darcys
Ohms law of electric flow
seepage
electric current through
conductors
q=k h A
I=CEa
L

q = quantity of seepage

I = rate of flow of electricity

k = coefficient of
permeability

C= electrical conductivity
coefficient

A = cross-sectional area

a = cross-sectional area

h = hydraulic head

E = electric potential

L = length of seepage

l = length of path of electric

current

Electric models which have same

geometric
shape as the soil through which the
water flows
is made use of.
The seepage medium is replaced by an
electric
conductor consisting of water with
some salt or
dilute hydrochloric acid.
The boundary equipotential lines are
made of

To determine a line of contour of equal

potential
The potentiometer is adjusted to a
percentage
of the total voltage drop and the probe
is used
to find the corresponding balance
points on the
model.
When once the equipotential lines are
obtained
orthogonal flow lines conforming to the

Phreatic Line
The phreatic line or seepage line is defined as
the line within a dam section below which there
are positive hydrostatic pressures in the dam.
The hydrostatic pressure on the phreatic line
itself is atmospheric and is equal to zero. Above
the phreatic line there is a zone of capillary
saturation(capillary fringe), in which the
hydrostatic pressures are negative i.e below
atmospheric

It gives a divide line between the dry

or moist
and submerged soil.
It represents the top streamline and
hence helps
in drawing flow net
The seepage line determination helps
to ensure
that it does not cut the downstream
face of the
dam which is necessary for preventing
softening

Piping
Whenever a hydraulic structure is founded on a
pervious foundation it is subjected to seepage
of water beneath the structure. Water has a
certain residual force at each point along its
flow through the subsoil which acts in the
direction of flow and is proportional to the
pressure gradient at that point. At the tail end,
this force is directed upward and will tend to lift

the soil particles if it is more than the

submerged weight of soil. Once the
soil particles
are disturbed, the resistance against
upward
pressure are further reduced and
progressive
disruption of sub-soil takes place. The
flow
gathers into a series of pipes . The
structure may
subside into the hollow so formed