Topic 1.1 - Measurements in Physics

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
1.1 Measurements in physics

Essential idea:
Since 1948, the Systme International dUnits (SI)
has been used as the preferred language of science
and technology across the globe and reflects current
best measurement practice.

Nature of science:
(1) Common terminology: Since the 18th century,
scientists have sought to establish common
systems of measurements to facilitate international
collaboration across science disciplines and ensure
replication and comparability of experiments.
(2) Improvement in instrumentation: Improvement in
instrumentation, such as using the transition of
cesium-133 atoms for atomic clocks, has led to
more refined definitions of standard units.
(3) Certainty: Although scientists are perceived as
working towards finding exact answers, there is
unavoidable uncertainty in any measurement.

Understandings:
Fundamental and derived SI units
Scientific notation and metric multipliers
Significant figures
Orders of magnitude
Estimation

Applications and skills:
Using SI units in the correct format for all required
measurements, final answers to calculations and
presentation of raw and processed data
Using scientific notation and metric multipliers
Quoting and comparing ratios, values and
approximations to the nearest order of magnitude
Estimating quantities to an appropriate number of
significant figures

Guidance:
SI unit usage and information can be found at the
website of Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures
Students will not need to know the definition of SI units
except where explicitly stated in the relevant topics
Candela is not a required SI unit for this course
Guidance on any use of non-SI units such as eV, MeV
c-2, Ly and pc will be provided in the relevant topics
International-mindedness:
Scientific collaboration is able to be truly global without
the restrictions of national borders or language due
to the agreed standards for data representation

Theory of knowledge:
What has influenced the common language used in
science? To what extent does having a common
standard approach to measurement facilitate the
sharing of knowledge in physics?
Utilization:
This topic is able to be integrated into any topic taught
at the start of the course and is important to all
topics
Students studying more than one group 4 subject will
be able to use these skills across all subjects

Aims:
Aim 2 and 3: this is an essential area of knowledge
that allows scientists to collaborate across the globe
Aim 4 and 5: a common approach to expressing
results of analysis, evaluation and synthesis of
scientific information enables greater sharing and
collaboration

Physics has some of the most famous names in
science.
If a poll were to be taken on who is the most famous
scientist, many people would choose
Albert Einstein
A PHYSICIST

Physics has some of the most famous names in
science.
If a poll were to be taken on who is the most famous
scientist, other people might choose
Isaac Newton
A PHYSICIST

The physics we will study this year and next was
pioneered by the following four individuals:
Other greats will be introduced when the time comes.
Galileo
Kinematics
Einstein
Relativity
Newton
Quantum physics
Maxwell
Calculus
Electrodynamics
Dynamics
Classical Physics

Physics is the study of forces, and matters reaction to
them.
All of the sciences have examples of force:
In biology, we have the bighorn sheep:
N1
F21
f1
Kilo
pounds
F12
N2
W1
W2
f2

them.
In chemistry, we have the popping can:
pounds

them.
In physics, we have the biggest forces of all:
Dakota H-Bomb 1 million tons of TNT
Meteor Crater - Arizona

100 Dakota H-Bombs

Physics is the study of the very small.
And the very
Barred Spiral Galaxy NGC 1300
large.
About 2 1021 meters in diameter
And
everything in
between.

The fundamental units in the SI system are
- mass
- measured in kilograms (kg)
- length
- measured in meters (m)
- time
- measured in seconds (s)
- temperature - measured in Kelvin degrees (K)
- electric current - measured in amperes (A)
- luminosity
- measured in candela (cd)
- mole
- measured in moles (mol)
FYI
In chemistry you will no doubt use the mole, the meter,
the second, and probably the Kelvin.
You will also use the gram. In physics we use the
kilogram (meaning 1000 grams).

1.1 Measurements in physicsFYI: Blue headings are
PRACTICE:
assessment criteria put

out by the IBO
SOLUTION:
FYI: Funky print practice problems are
The correct answer is (D).
drawn from old IB tests
FYI
The body that has designed the IB course is called the
IBO, short for International Baccalaureate Organization,
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and Wales,
England.
The IBO expects you to memorize the fundamental
units.
Learning Intentions
You have already learned about
What is physics
The 7 fundamental units
What you will learn about

Derived units
Converting between units

The International Prototype of the Kilogram was
sanctioned in 1889. Its form is a cylinder with diameter
and height of about 39 mm. It is made of an alloy of 90
% platinum and 10 % iridium. The IPK has been
conserved at the BIPM since 1889, initially with two
official copies. Over the years, one official copy was
replaced and four have been added.
FYI
One meter is about a yard
or three feet.
One kilogram is about 2.2
pounds.

Derived quantities have units that are combos of the
fundamental units. For example
Speed - measured in meters per second (m / s).
Acceleration - measured in
meters per second per
second (m / s 2).
FYI
SI stands for Systme
International and is a standard
body of measurements.
The SI system is pretty much
the world standard in units.

In the sciences, you must be able to convert from one
set of units (and prefixes) to another.
We will use multiplication by the well-chosen one.
EXAMPLE: Suppose the rate of a car is 36 mph, and it
travels for 4 seconds. What is the distance traveled in
that time by the car?
FYI
SOLUTION:
Sometimes
Distance is rate times time, or d = rt. correct units
do not convey
d=rt
much meaning
36
mi
(4 s)
d=
to us. See next
1h
example!
d = 144 mis/h

In the sciences, you must be able to convert from one
set of units (and prefixes) to another.
We will use multiplication by the well-chosen one.
EXAMPLE: Convert 144 mis/h into units that we can
understand.
SOLUTION:
Use well-chosen ones as multipliers.
d = 144 mis 1 h 1 min = 0.04 mi
60 s
h
60 min
0.04 mi 5280 ft = 211.2 ft
1
mi

You can use units to prove that equations are invalid.
EXAMPLE: Given that distance is measured in meters,
time in seconds and acceleration in meters per second
squared, show that the formula d = at does not work
and thus is not valid.
SOLUTION: Start with the formula, then substitute the
units on each side. Cancel to where you can easily
compare left and right sides:
FYI
d = at
The last line shows that the units are
m = m2 s
s
inconsistent on left and right.
m=m
Thus the equation cannot be valid.
s

You can use units to prove that equations are invalid.
PRACTICE: Decide if the formulas are dimensionally
consistent. The information you need is that v is
measured in m/s, a is in m/s2, x is in m and t is in s.
numbers dont have units
2
2
(a) v = at
(b) v = 3ax
(c) x = at2
Inconsistent
Consistent
Consistent
FYI
The process of substituting units into formulas to
check for consistency is called dimensional analysis.
DA can be used only to show the invalidity of a
formula. Both (b) and (c) are consistent but neither is
correct. They should be: v2 = 2ax and x = (1/2)at2.

We will be working with very large and very small
numbers, so we will use the these prefixes:
Power of 10
10 -12
10 -9
10 -6
10 -3
10 -2
10 3
10 6
10 9
10 12
Prefix Name
pico
p
nano
n
micro
milli
m
centi
c
kilo
k
mega
M
giga
G
tera
T
Symbol

Scientific notation (commonly referred to as "standard
form") is a way of writing numbers that are too big or too
small to be conveniently written in decimal form.
A number in scientific notation is expressed as a10b,
where a is a real number (called the coefficient,
mantissa or significand) and b is an integer { , -2, -1,
0, 1, 2, }.
We say that the number is normalized if 1 |a| < 10.

EXAMPLE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation#Normalized_notation
4.321768 ks
-53 ks
9.72 Gs
200 ms
7.51 ns

Using SI units in the correct format
In IB units are in European format rather than
American format.
The accepted presentation has no fraction slash.
Instead, denominator units are written in the numerator
with negative exponents. This is SI standard.
EXAMPLE: A cars speed is measured as 40 km / h and
its acceleration is measured as 1.5 m / s 2. Rewrite the
units in the accepted IB format.
SOLUTION: Denominator units just come to the
numerator as negative exponents. Thus
40 km / h is written 40 km h -1.
1.5 m / s 2 is written 1.5 m s -2.

Significant figures
Error in measurement is expected because of the
imperfect nature of our measuring devices.
A typical meter stick has marks at every millimeter (10
-3
m or 1/1000 m). Thus the best measurement you can
get from a typical meter stick is to the nearest mm.
EXAMPLE: Consider the following line whose length we
wish to measure. How long is it?
0
SOLUTION:
1 cm
1 mm
It is closer to 1.2 cm than 1.1 cm, so we say it
measures 1.2 cm. The 1 and 2 are both significant.

Significant figures
We call the 1 in the measurement below the most
significant digit. It represents the main portion of our
measurement.
We call the 2 in the measurement below the least
significant digit.
EXAMPLE: Consider the following line whose length we
wish to measure. How long is it?
0
SOLUTION:
1 cm
It is closer to 1.2 cm than 1.1 cm, so we say it
measures 1.2 cm.
1
1 mm

Significant figures
A ruler is an analog measuring device.
So is a meter with a needle.

For good analog devices you can estimate the last
digit.
Thus, to say that the
0
1
blue line is 1.17 cm
or 1.18 cm long are both correct.
The 1.1 part constitutes the two certain digits.
The 7 (or 8) constitutes the uncertain digit.

Significant figures
A digital measuring device, on the other hand, is only
good to the least significant digits place.
EXAMPLE:
The meter shown here is only good to
the nearest 0.1 V. There is NO
estimation of another digit.

Significant figures
Significant figures are the reasonable number of
digits that a measurement or calculation should have.
For example, as illustrated before, a typical wooden
meter stick has two significant figures.
The number of significant figures in a calculation
reflects the precision of the least precise of the
measured values.

Significant figures
(1) All non-zero digits are
significant.
438 g
26.42 m
0.75 cm
(2) All zeros between non-zero
12060 m
digits are significant.
900.43 cm
220 L
(3) Filler zeros to the left of an
understood decimal place are not
60 g
significant.
30. cm
(4) Filler zeros to the right of a
0.006 L
decimal place are not significant.
0.08 g
(5) All non-filler zeros to the right
8.0 L
of a decimal place are significant.
60.40 g
3
4
2
4
5
2
1
2
1
1
2
4

Significant figures in calculations
EXAMPLE
CALCULATOR SIG. FIGS
Multiplication and division round your answer to
the same number of significant digits as the quantity
with the fewest number of significant digits.
(1.2 cm)(2 cm)
2.4 cm2
2 cm2
(2.75 cm)2
7.5625 cm2
7.56 cm2
5.350 m/2.752 s
1.944040698 m/s 1.944 m/s
(0.0075 N)(6 m)
0.045 Nm
0.04 Nm
Addition and subtraction round your answer to the
same number of decimal places as the quantity with
the fewest number of decimal places.
1.2 cm + 2 cm
3.2 cm
3 cm
2000 m+2.1 m
2002.1 m
2000 m
0.00530 m 2.10 m -2.0947 m
-2.09 m

significant figures
PRACTICE: How long is this line?
0
1
1 cm
1 mm
SOLUTION: Read the first two certain digits, then

estimate the last uncertain one.
The 1 and the 2 are the certain digits.
The 8 (or 7) is the uncertain digit.
It is about 1.28 cm (or maybe 1.27 cm) long.

significant figures
PRACTICE: What is the reading on each of the
graduated cylinders? Which digits are uncertain.
(A)
(B)
SOLUTION: Read to the bottom of the meniscus.

(A) reads 52.8 mL. The 8 is uncertain.
(B) Reads 6.62 mL. The 2 is uncertain.

Orders of magnitude
Mass of universe
Diameter of universe
Diameter of galaxy
Age of universe
Speed of light
Diameter of atom
Diameter of nucleus
Diameter of quark
Mass of proton
Mass of quark
Mass of electron
10 50 kg
10 25 m
10 21 m
10 18 s
10 8 m s-1
10 -10 m
10 -15 m
10 -18 m
10 -27 kg
10 -30 kg
10 -31 kg

EXAMPLE: Given that the smallest length in the
universe is the Planck length of 10 -35 meters and that
the fastest speed in the universe is that of light at 10 8
meters per second, find the smallest time interval in the
universe.
SOLUTION:
Speed is distance divided by time (speed = d / t).
Using algebra we can write t = d / speed.
Substitution yields t = 10 -35 / 10 8 = 10 -43 seconds.

EXAMPLE: Find the difference in order of magnitude of
the mass of the universe to the mass of a quark.
SOLUTION:
Make a ratio (fraction) and simplify.
10 50 kilograms / 10 -30 kilograms = 10 80.
Note that the kilograms cancels leaving a unitless
power of ten.
The answer is 80 orders of magnitude.

PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
Diameter of nucleus is 10 -15 m.
Diameter of atom is 10 -10 m.
Thus 10 -15 m / 10 -10 m = 10 -15 (-10) = 10 -5.
The correct answer is (C).

PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
The 92 in 92Sr means 92 nucleons.
The mass of nucleons (protons and neutrons) is of the
order of 10 -27 kg.
92 is of the order of 10 2.
Thus 10 2 10 -27 kg = 10 -25 kg.
The correct answer is (B).

PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
VEarth = 10 12 km3 = 10 12 (10 3) 3 = 10 12 + 9 = 10 21 m3.
Vsand = 1 mm3 = 10 0 (10 -3) 3 = 10 0 - 9 = 10 -9 m3.
Nsand = VEarth / Vsand = 10 21 / 10 -9 = 10 21 (-9) = 1030.
The correct answer is (D).

Estimation revisited
Another form of estimation is to solve complex
problems with the simplest math possible and obtain a
ballpark figure as an answer.
If at all possible, only powers of ten are used.
EXAMPLE: NY and LA are separated by about 3000 mi
and three time zones. What is the
circumference of Earth?
SOLUTION:
Since 3000 mi = 3 TZ, 1000 mi = 1 TZ.
There are 24 h in a day.
Earth rotates once each day. Thus there are 24 TZ in
one circumference, or 241000 mi = 24000 mi.

PRACTICE:
SOLUTION: The human heart rate is about

75 beats per minute. This is between
10 1 (10) and 10 2 (100).
But 1 hour is 60 min, which is also between
10 1 (10) and 10 2 (100).
Then our answer is between
10 1 10 1 = 10 2 and 10 2 10 2 = 10 4.
The correct answer is (C).

Topic 1.1 - Measurements in Physics

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Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

1.1 Measurements in physics

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Dakota H-Bomb 1 million tons of TNT

Meteor Crater - Arizona

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

assessment criteria put

What you will learn about

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

So is a meter with a needle.

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

SOLUTION: Read the first two certain digits, then

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

SOLUTION: Read to the bottom of the meniscus.

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

SOLUTION: The human heart rate is about

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