Protection Two Types Unit Non Unit Line Non Unit Type (Distance) Compare Unit Type Primary & Back - Up Protections Local Remote Zone of Protection

unit
Protection
Two types
non unit
line
Compare
Unit type
non unit type

(distance)
Primary & Back up protections
local
remote
Zone of protection
#1
Power Research & Development
Distance relays(non- unit)

Z1, Z2 , Z0
Ia1, Ia2 , Ia0
relay
#2
fault
Distance Relay
Expressions for Impedance calculations(Positive sequence impedance

Phase to Ground Fault(a-g)
VA= Ia1 Z1 + Ia2 Z2 + Ia0 Z0
= Ia1 Z1 + Ia2 Z2 + Ia0 Z0- Ia0 Z1+ Ia0 Z1
=Z1[Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 ] + Z1
=Z1[ Ia + 3kIa0 ]
Z0 - Z1
Z1
Ia0
K: Zero sequence compensation factor K= Z0 - Z1

3 Z1
#3
Phase to Phase fault(b-c)

Ib = - Ic ; Ib0 = - 0 ; Ic0 = - 0 ;
Vb= Ib1 Z1 + Ib2 Z2 = Ib Z1
Vc= Ic1 Z1 + Ic2 Z2 = Ic Z1
Vb Vc
Ib Ic
#4
Z1[Ib Ic ]
[Ib Ic ]
= Z1
+JX
Load
-R
No Load
Reverse
-JX
#5
Poly-phase protection
3 ph-ph
3 ph-G
relays
T3
T3
Z3
T2
Z2
T1
Z1
Z4
T2
Z2
T1
Z1
Relay
Reverse
fault
#6
Forward
jx
jx
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z2
Z1
Z3
R
Z4
Z4
- Transients in voltage & current inputs

- Load Encroachment
- Tolerance for fault resistance(RF)
- Power swing effects
- Parallel lines; Mutual coupling
#7
Switched Distance protection

Switching networks to ensure measuring elements connected to
correct phase under fault conditions
Switching networks controlled by fault detectors responsive to
current, impedance or combination of current and voltage.
Limitations: Operating time increases
First to identify the fault phases
To switch the measuring elements to correct phases
#8
Ex: Zone-1 Operation requires 3 functions

starting
Phase selection
measurement
Poly phase distance protection
Does not use special switching or phase
selective networks but use special combination
of relaying signals
#9
Starting relays
Operates for selected phases depending on type of fault and energie

switching networks for measuring elements
Overcurrent starter relays
Current setting considerations:
Depends on max load current, max. sound phase currents
To provide back-up function
Under voltage starter relays
Resistance earthed systems(3 phase to neutral connected under
voltage element)
Impedance starter relay
Improves fault coverage
#10
Distance protection based on information links

To avoid delayed operation for internal faults beyond zone-1 setting
Provides co-ordinated tripping between line ends
Information link through pilot-wire, power line carrier.
Tripping Schemes
Received signal is used for direct tripping
Received signal and the conditions of the relays at the receiving end
Three basic arrangements based on trip command
Direct inter tripping
permissive under reach
permissive over reach
#11
Direct tripping
operation of relays at either end initiate tripping at that end and
transmits the information to initiate tripping by remote end relays
should ensure correct tripping in the presence of interference
Probability of incorrect tripping as speed of communication channel
increases
Applied mainly to transformer feeder where circuit breaker is not
associated with transformer
Permissive inter tripping
Tripping action of received signal is made dependant on fault
detecting relay
Reduces the risk of unwanted tripping due to noise/interference
#12
Permissive under reach

i.
With independent control

Operates independently of the received inter trip signal
Instantaneous operation of Zone-2 and operation of receive
relay results in tripping
ii. Accelerated distance protection

Permissive inter trip over reaching
Zone-1 relays with extended reach
Tripping at each end depends on the operation of zone-1 relay at

both ends
#13
Disadvantage
For low fault level, tripping at one end is delayed, resulting in delayed
operation
Blocking Schemes
blocks the operation on detecting reverse faults at a relay location
either end blocks the operation of other
#14
What is apparent impedance & why ?
I1
I2
2
If2
If1
ZR = V1
I1
Z1
#15
If
Z2
Case 1: I 2
Z R Z1 Z 2
I1 I f 1
Case 2:V1 Z 2 . I f 1 Z1 . I1 Z 2 I1 I 2 Z1 . I1
I2
V1
ZR
. Z 2 Z1 Z 2
I1
I1
#16
Relay
ZA
EA
I relay =
I relay
ZL
ZB
EB 0
EA - EB
ZT
ZT =ZA +ZB + ZL
EA-I relay ZA
V
relay
Zseen (relay)=
=
I relay
I relay
EA
= -ZA +
ZT
EA - EB
= -ZA +ZT
#17
E
1- B
EA
= -ZA +ZT
= -ZA +ZT
2
1
1- cos + jsin
1- j cot
X
-ZB
-ZT/2
=1800
EA > 1
EB
-ZL
EA = 1
EB
R
Power swing
-ZA
EA < 1
EB
Power swing condition

#18
x
Allowance for fault
resistance
Reduces the
resistance reach
a
e
f
R
d
#19
Parallel lines a and b are introduced to reduce reach for the

following reasons:
To avoid the tripping of a healthy line when load encroaches the
relay characteristic (especially during peak load conditions)
Reduces the effect of power swings on the operation of the relay
C & D
resistance
provides allowance for fault
e & f lines provides directional feature for the

parallelogram Characteristic
#20
JX
LINE
3RD ZONE
LOAD IMPEDANCE
0
40
80
120
160
240
1ST ZONE
280
320
R(ohms)
LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 132 kv LINE
#21
JX
400
LINE
300
3RD ZONE
200
1ST ZONE
100
LOAD IMPEDANCE
100
200
300
400
500
R(ohms)
LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 400 kv LINE
#22
X-axis
XF
: setting angle
RB
RF
R-axis
XB
QUADRILATERAL CHAR OF TRACTION REALY
#23
Vcos *Icos+Vsin * Isin

=
Rcal
Icos *Icos+Isin * Isin
Xcal =
Logic:
Vsin *Icos-Vcos * Isin

Icos *Icos+Isin * Isin
a) DISTANCE PROTECTION
XB<Xcal<Xf
RB +
Xcal
< Rcal< Rf + Xcal
tan
tan
#24
OP. Point
X-Axis: Resistance in ohms

30
Y-Axis: Resistance in ohms
25
20
Trip
15
No Trip
10
5
Phase-Ground Fault
Load = 500A
-5
Power Factor = 0.8 Lagging
-10
Fault Location = 7.15 km
-15
-20
From relaying point

-10
10
20
30
40
50
Variation of fault impedance measured by the relay with sample

#25
X-Axis
X5
X3
Zone 3
X2
Zone 2
Power Swing Zone
X1
Zone 1
1
RB 3
2
Zone 4
RBS
RF
RFS
R-Axis
X4
X6
Quadrilateral characteristic of distance relay

#26
Relay Logic (For All zones; Fault Quadrilateral)

X4 < Xcal < X3
RB+Xcal cot 1 < Rcal < RF + Xcal cot 1
Additional relay Logic For Zone Detection
Zone-1 If R < 0; -R tan 3 < X < X
cal
cal
cal
1
If Rcal > 0; -Rcal tan 2 < Xcal< X1
Zone-2
If Rcal < 0; -Rcal tan 3 < Xcal< X2
If Rcal > 0; -Rcal tan 2 < Xcal< X2
Zone-3 R & X reach in Fault Quadrilateral and if not detected in Zone-1

Or Zone-2
Zone-4
Zone-3 reverse reach
#27
Power Swing (Power Swing Quadrilateral)

X3 < Xcal < X4 And RF + Xcal cot 1< Rcal < RB + Xcal cot 1
And
X6 < Xcal < X5 And RBS + Xcal cot 1< Rcal < RFS + Xcal cot 1
#28
Relay Logic
The fault detection characteristic can be realised by simple logic
Expressions given by,
If XB1< Xcal < XF1; RB1 < Rcal < RF1
OR
If XF1< Xcal < XF2; RB1 (Xcal < XF1)*cot < Rcal <
RF1 + (Xcal - XF1)*cot
OR
If XB2< Xcal < XB1; RB1 + (Xcal - XB1)*cot < Rcal <
RF1 - (Xcal - XB1)*cot
OR
If XF2< Xcal < XF OR XB < Xcal < XB2 ; RB < Rcal < RF
#29
Where RF, RF1 and RB , RB1 are resistance reach setting in the
forward and reverse direction respectively. XF, XF1 and XF2
are forward reactance reach settings. XB, XB1 and XB2
are reverse reactance reach settings. is the setting angle.
Rcal and Xcal are computed values of R and X
#30
Power Swings
Surges of Power resulting after the removal of a short circuit.
Resulting from connecting a generator to the system at an instant whe

they are out of phase(Loss of Synchronism).
Power Swing Blocking
Measured impedance should lie in power swing band for more than th
preset value of the timer (in ms)
Relay operation blocked for few seconds
#31
X
Zone-3
Zone-2
(R3X3)
(R2X2)
(R1X1)
Zone-1
offset
#32
Z1
cos
R1 =
Z
Z1
sin
X1 =
Z
Z2
R2 =
Z
Z2
X2 =
Z
cos
sin
Z3
R3 =
Z
cos
Z3
X3 =
Z
sin
#33
Zone-1
Zone-2
Zoffset
2
Zoffset
2
cos
Zone-3
sin
Relay Settings
Z1, Z2, Z1
Zone-1, Zone-2 & Zone-3 forward reach settings

Reverse reach setting for Zone-3
Zoffset
Characteristic angle to suit line angle(450 750)

,
#34
Generalized Equations for Circular characteristic

r2 = (Rcal - R) 2 + (Xcal -X ) 2
Rcal , Xcal : Measured values of Resistance & Reactance computed
using relaying algorithm
R, X : Relay reach settings, (R1 - X1) for Zone-1,
(R2 X2) for Zone-2 , (R3 X3) for Zone-3
r : computed value
, , of radius
#35
Fault Detection Logic

r2 < r2th
r2th : Stored threshold values of square of radius . Compared for three
Different zones (zone detection)
Timers of predetermined relays are initiated if the fault is detected
in Zone-2 and Zone-3
#36
XF
Additional fault
coverage
XF2
XF1
Load
Load
RB
RB1
RF1
RF
XB1
XB2
XB
Fault characteristic of Distance Relay

#37
Conclusions
digital distance relaying schemes based on DSP processors
have led to the reassessment of relaying algorithms for
developing high performance numeric distance relays.
Suitable pre-filtering techniques based on IIR and FIR filters
improves the performance of numeric relays.
Evaluation studies show that short data window algorithms can
be used for high speed distance designs
Multiprocessor based configuration for high speed and accurate
distance relay designs has been proposed.
The reliability of multiprocessor based relays can be improved
by executing several algorithms in parallel and by OR/AND
gating their outputs to issue trip signal during faults.
#38

Protection Two Types Unit Non Unit Line Non Unit Type (Distance) Compare Unit Type Primary & Back - Up Protections Local Remote Zone of Protection

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unit

non unit type

Power Research & Development

Distance relays(non- unit)

Power Research & Development

Expressions for Impedance calculations(Positive sequence impedance

K: Zero sequence compensation factor K= Z0 - Z1

Power Research & Development

Phase to Phase fault(b-c)

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

- Transients in voltage & current inputs

Power Research & Development

Switched Distance protection

Power Research & Development

Ex: Zone-1 Operation requires 3 functions

Power Research & Development

Operates for selected phases depending on type of fault and energie

Power Research & Development

Distance protection based on information links

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

Permissive under reach

With independent control

ii. Accelerated distance protection

Tripping at each end depends on the operation of zone-1 relay at

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

What is apparent impedance & why ?

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

Power swing condition

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

Parallel lines a and b are introduced to reduce reach for the

provides allowance for fault

e & f lines provides directional feature for the

Power Research & Development

LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 132 kv LINE

Power Research & Development

LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 400 kv LINE

Power Research & Development

Power Research & Development

Vcos *Icos+Vsin * Isin

Vsin *Icos-Vcos * Isin

Power Research & Development

X-Axis: Resistance in ohms

Power Factor = 0.8 Lagging

Fault Location = 7.15 km

From relaying point

Variation of fault impedance measured by the relay with sample

Power Research & Development

Power Swing Zone

Quadrilateral characteristic of distance relay

Power Research & Development

Relay Logic (For All zones; Fault Quadrilateral)

Vcos Icos+Vsin Isin

Vsin Icos-Vcos Isin