Basics of Remote Sensing

- Principles and Concepts -

Training Programme on Satellite Remote Sensing

Organized by

Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre

Department of Space, Government of India

Remote Sensing ?
Science of collecting information about
objects from a distance without being in
physical contact with the object.
It employs Electromagnetic energy viz.
light, heat, microwave etc. for detecting and
measuring target characteristics.
Remote sensing
Active Remote Sensing
Sensing
( Uses its own source of EM
energy )

Imaging Systems

Passive Remote
( Uses Sun as a source of
EM energy )

Non-Imaging Systems

Historical sketch of Remote Sensing:

In 1858

- First photograph was taken from a balloon at

an altitude of 80 meters.

In 1903

- Invention of aeroplane.

By 1909

- Beginning of Airborne photography.

By 1950s

- Infra-red films & imaging radars were

developed.

In 1960

- Sensors began to be placed in space.

From 1970s - Started the new era of Remote Sensing.

Since then continuous efforts are being made for technological
improvements for obtaining high quality data
LANDSAT (USA) 1972 , SEASAT 1978, SPOT (FRANCE) 1985 ,
IRS-1A (INDIA) 1988, MOS (JAPAN) 1991, RADARSAT - 1995

Different stages of Remote Sensing Data Acquisition

1. The Energy source

5. Received by the
sensor

SUN
6. Transmission
of data to earth
station

3. Interaction of energy with

earths surface features

7. Data Products
Digital or
Analogue

Multi-users

2. Propagation of
energy through
atmosphere

4. Re-propagation
of energy
through
atmosphere

Remote Sensing relies on the Interaction of EM energy with the matter (object).
Sensing of EM radiation which is Reflected ,
Scattered or Emitted from the object.

What is Electromagnetic Energy ?

Refers to energy that moves with velocity of light
( 3 x 10 8 m/s) in a harmonic wave pattern and
have two force fields , electric & magnetic that are
orthogonal to each other.

Electromagnetic Wave
E

M
c
f
Sinusoidal electric wave (E) and similar magnetic wave (M) at
right angles , both being perpendicular to direction of
propagation.

EM energy :
Can be described in terms of Velocity ( c ) ,
Wavelength ( ) and Frequency ( f ) C= x f
Propagates in the form of a wave. (Wave theory)
Can only be detected when it interacts with the
matter. (Particle theory)
Consists of discrete units called Photons whose
energy ( Q ) is given by -

Q=hc/
where h (plancks constant) = 6.625 x 10 -34 Jsec.

Electromagnetic Spectrum :
It is a continuum sequence of EM energy arranged
according to wavelength or frequency .

0.7
m

3.0
m

Thermal

ray ray
0.03
3.0 0.4
nm
nm m

Thermal

U
V

Infrared

Visible

wave

5 8
14 0.1
m m m cm

Energy in - ray , X-ray & UV region is absorbed by the

earths atmosphere , hence not used for remote sensing.
Spectral sensitivity of human eye extends from 0.4 to
0.7m

Remote sensing deals with energy in visible , infrared,

thermal and microwave regions.

30
cm

REGIONS
Blue

WAVELENGT
H
(m)
0.45 0.52

PRINCIPAL APPLICATION

Green

0.52 0.60

Vigor assessment, Rock & Soil discrimination,

Turbidity & bathymetry studies

Red

0.63 0.69

Plant species differentiation

Near infrared

0.76 0.90

Vegetation vigor, Biomass, Delineation of water

features, Landforms/geomorphic studies

Mid infrared

1.55 1.75

Vegetation moisture content, soil

content, snow & cloud differentiation

Mid infrared

2.08 2.35

Differentiation of geological materials & soils

Thermal IR

3.0 5.0

For hot targets Viz. Fires and volcanoes

Thermal IR

10.4 12.5

Thermal sensing,
Volcanic studies

Coastal morphology & Sedimentation study, Soil

and Vegetation differentiation, Coniferous &
Deciduous vegetation discrimination

moisture

Vegetation discrimination,

Basic Radiation Laws :

Sun is the strongest source of energy and can be thought of as a body
source of temperature above 60000 K. Earths temp is 300K.
All objects above 00 K emit EM radiation at different wavelengths.

Thermal emission of radiation depends upon Temp and Emmissivity of

the material.

Maximum spectral radiant exitance from Earth is at 9.7 m.

This energy can neither be seen nor photographed , but can be
sensed by thermal scanners

Suns energy peak is at 0.5 m.

Human eye is sensitive to energy of this magnitude &
wavelength. Thus , earths features can be observed by virtue of
reflected solar energy

 Stefan-Boltzmann law :

All bodies with temp. above 00 K emits EM radiation and the

energy radiated is given by
M = T4 where = 5.67 x 10 -8 W / m2 / K4
Since M varies with fourth power of temp , the objects even with close
difference in temp. can be distinguished

Wiens displacement law :

Maximum spectral radiant exitance of a black body is inversely
proportional to its temp.

Mmax = A / T where A = 2898 m K

As the temp. of black body increases, dominant wavelength of emitted
radiation shifts towards shorter wavelengths

When the piece of iron is heated , its color changes from

Dark red > Orange > Yellow > White

 Plancks law :

It enables us to assess total energy radiated in all directions by

unit area in unit time in a wavelength .

C1
---------------------5 (e c2 / T -1)

Where, C1 = 3.74 x 10 -16 Wm2

C2 = 1.44 x 10 -2 m K

is the wavelength, T is absolute temperature

M is the spectral radiant exitance

EM Radiation and the Atmosphere

EM energy passes twice through the atmosphere
Nitrogen & oxygen make up 99% of atmospheric gases
Ozone is concentrated within stratosphere
Atmosphere also contains pollen from vegetation, smoke,
water vapors, methane, CO2 etc.
Dust particles dimensions ~ 0.01 to 10 m

Characteristics of atmosphere determine the

effective use of EM spectrum for remote sensing.

EM Radiation and the Atmosphere

The water vapours, oxygen, ozone, carbon-di-oxide , arerosols
influence EM radiation through the mechanism of -

Scattering and Absorption.

Scattering :
Unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles
present in the atmosphere.
Reduces the image contrast, causes haze and
changes the spectral signatures of the ground objects.
Depends on the size of atmospheric particles with
reference to the interacting radiation wavelength.

EM Radiation and the Atmosphere

TYPES OF SCATTERING
Rayleigh
Particle diameter is
less than Wavelength
of radiation
Rs 1 / 4
Haze appears on the
image.

Reduction in image
Contrast.
Dominate under most
atmospheric conditions.

Mie
Particle diameter
(water vapour , dust
particles ) approx.
equals wavelength of
radiation
Ms 1 /

Significant in slightly
overcast conditions

Non-Selective
Particle diameter
(water droplets ) is
many times more than
wave length of radiation.
Scatters wavelengths
of visible light with
equal efficiency.
Because of scattering
cloud appears white in
the image

EM Radiation and the Atmosphere

ABSORPTION :
Results in the effective loss of energy because of the attenuating
nature of atmospheric constituents viz molecules of ozone, CO2
and water vapours.

Atmospheric Windows :
These are the regions with high transmission.
The effect of scattering and absorption is minimum in these
regions.
Following regions are used to acquire remote sensing data.
0.3-0.7 , 0.8-1.1 , 1.2-1.3, 1.5-1.8 , 2.0-2.5, 3.0-5.5,
8-14 (m), 10mm - 1cm

EM Radiation : Interaction Mechanism

Interaction with matter can change the following properties of
incident radiation.
Intensity , Direction , Wavelength , Polarization , Phase

The science of Remote Sensing detects and records

these changes

Energy Balance Equation :

EI
Incident

ER

EA

ET

= Reflected + Absorbed + Transmitted

 Reflected / Scattered : ( Surface Phenomena)

Returned from the surface of material.
Depends upon the composition & condition of material and
the wavelength of incident radiation.
Surface is smooth, when h < /8 - Specular reflection
Surface is rough, when h > /8 - Diffuse reflectiion

 Absorbed : (volume Phenomena)

Material absorbs the incident radiation.
Absorbed energy results in heating of the matter which in turn
emits radiation at different wavelengths.
Spectral emission depends upon the surface characteristics and
temperature.

Transmitted : (volume Phenomena)

Passes through the substance.

Discrimination of features ?
Energy reflected, absorbed and transmitted will vary depending
on the material type and condition.
Within a given feature type, proportions of reflected, absorbed
and transmitted energy will vary at different wavelengths

Spectral Reflectance Characteristics of

Earths surface features
It can be quantified by the proportion of energy reflected by
features at different wavelengths.

The spectral reflectance of an object is the

ratio of ER() and EI().

= ER ()
--------- x 100
EI ()
A graph of spectral reflectance of an object as a
function of wavelength is called Spectral
Reflectance Curve.

1.Vegetation
Reflection
properties are
affected by

Leaf structure

1
1

Leaf maturation
Leaf damage
Viewing geometry

Less reflectance in visible region due to absorption of

visible light by pigments ( chlorophyll, xanthophyll,
carotenoids)
Strong reflection in NIR region due to multiple internal
reflections within leaf structure.
In MIR region , Reflection reduces due to water
absorption bands at 1.4 , 1.9 and 2.4

In Visible Domain ( .4 to .7 )
Leaf reflectance is low < 15%

Majority is absorbed by leaf

pigments at .45 & .66.

Max. Reflectance at .55 in green

region

In NIR Domain ( .7 - 1.3 )

Leaf absorption is very low < 10%. Reflection is about 40 -50%.
Plant reflectance results primarily from the internal structure of
leaves. Leaves undergo multiple transmission and reflections, thus
giving maximum reflectance.

In MIR Domain
Majority of incident radiation is essentially absorbed.
Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 m , because water in
leaves absorbs the incident radiation.

Other factors affecting the reflection from vegetation

Stress:
Interrupts normal growth and productivity.
May decrease or cease chlorophyll production.
Absorption decreases in blue and red band,
reflectance invreases in red band.

Leaf Age:
The chlorophyll disappears and replaced by brown pigments.
Increase in Y-G and red reflectance.
Reflection in NIR is less affected.
Increase in reflectance in MIR as decrease in water content.

Leaf growth:
During growth, the visible and MIR reflection decreases, NIR
increases.

During senescenes , reverse phenomena.

Effect of solar and sensor elevation on vegetation:

2. SOIL

Reflection
properties are
affected by
Moisture content
Texture
Structure
Organic content

Majority of the incident radiation is either reflected or

absorbed and little transmitted.
Steadily increasing reflection as wavelength increases.
Reflection decreases with increase in moisture content.
Reflection decreases with increase in the roughness.

 Soil moisture:

Reflectance is negatively related to

soil moisture, more moisture, less
reflectance unless saturated.
Increase in moisture shows rapid
decrease in water & hydroxyl
absorbtion bands - 0.9, 1.4, 1.9, 2.7,
1.4, 2.2 m.

Organic content:
It is dark in color, its presence (0-5%) steadily decrease the reflectance.
Iron oxide gives the soil rusty red color and reflects red (.6 - .7) and
absorbs green (.5 - .6).

Texture (Proportion of sand, silt & clay):

Clay soil - low diffuse reflectance, sandy soil - high reflectance

Structure (Arrangement of sand, silt & clay):

Small particle size, higher is the reflectance.

3. Water
Reflection
properties are
affected by
Depth of water
Material within
water

Surface roughness
of water

Majority of the incident radiation is not reflected , but either absorbed or

transmitted.
In visible region, 5% reflection, In NIR & MIR region, majority
absorption and very little reflection.
Shallow water body - the bottom reflects
Suspended material, tanin, chlorophyll increase reflectance
Roughness increase reflection

Interaction of Thermal infra-red

All objects above 0K emits EM radiation.
Intensity of thermal radiation depends upon material type and
temperature of the object.
Two surfaces may have similar reflection characteristics in
visible and infrared part of spectrum, but they may have
dissimilat thermal properties , they can be distinguished in
TIR.
Two major atmospheric windows for thermal region are 3 - 5 and
8 - 15 m.

Remote sensing devices records this phenomena as Radiant

Temperature (Trad).

T4(rad) = T4(kin)

Interaction of Thermal infra-red

Radiant temperature of an object is dependent upon four factors
EMMISSIVITY - Ability of object to absorb and radiate.

KINETIC TEMPERATURE Internal temperature on the object.

THERMAL PROPERTIES Thermal capacity, Thermal
conductivity.
Thermal inertia etc.

Remote sensing devices measure

Apparent thermal inertia which is given by :

ATI = 1 A / T

Remote Sensing Observation Platforms

Air-borne

Space-borne

Air - borne :
Air crafts are flown with maximum stability, free from
vibrations and uniform speed.
Air crafts carry the RS equipments.
Air crafts currently used in India - Dakota, AVRO,
Beechcraft superking Air 200.
Air craft operations are very expensive.
Cannot provide cost and time effective solution for
periodical monitoring of constantly changing
phenomena like crop growth, vegetation etc.

 Space borne :
Placing a satellite in orbit is clearly more expensive than airborne
campaign, but advantages are substantial Platforms in space are very less affected by atmospheric drag.
Orbits can be well defined. Large area can be covered
synoptically at regular intervals.
Immensely useful for the management and monitoring of natural
resources.
Satellite is the platform that carries the sensor and other
payloads required in RS operations.
It is put into the appropriate orbit with the help of launch
vehicle.

Space borne Platforms

Polar Orbiting

Geo-Stationary

Polar orbiting Satellite : (mostly RS satellites)

Satellite revolves around earth in a sun-synchronous orbit at

an altitude of 700 to 1500 km.

Sun-synchronous Orbit:
Earth itself is in orbit about the sun. Sun appears to move from
earth (west to east) with a period of one year.
Orbital plane maintains precise pace with the suns westward
progress as earth rotates around sun.

Since the position with reference to sun is fixed , satellite will

cross the equator precisely at same local solar time.

Factors for satellite orbit determination:

Systematic and repititive acquisition of data.
Better geographical coverage from a single ground station
Low drag effect, less frequent orbit correction (fuel saving).

Observation under almost identical condition of illumination.

Near polar, circular sun syncronous orbit with equatorial

crossing time (9:30 - 10:30 am) and satellite height is 800 900 kms
Equatorial crossing time : (9:30 - 10:30 am)
Satellite for multiple resource applications.

Geological observations demand low sun angle, shadow gives a better

view of relief.
For marine related observations, sun glitter should be avoided.
Agriculture purpose the appropriate time is noon ( no shadow)

 Geo-stationary Satellite : (Mostly Communication

& meteorological satellites)
Altitude - 36000 Km.

A satellite in this orbit is at rest with respect to the rotating

earth. Stationary in reference to earth.
Satellite is in circular orbit above the equator with nodal period
equal to earths rotational period.
Velocity is equal to velocity with which earth rotates about its

axis.
Always covers fixed area above earth surface.

SATELLITE

Natural satellite

Revolve around planet

Move in designed orbit
Have a specific purpose
Objectives and purpose :
Earths surface monitoring
Meteorological observations
Telecommunications
TV broadcasting
Global positioning system

Artificial satellite

SENSORS
RS systems are designed to record radiation (related to physical
variations) in one or more parts of EM spectrum.
Mounted on board satellites.
Sensors are electronic instruments to record these radiation.

Strength of signal depends upon

Energy flux
Altitude
Spectral bandwidth
Instantaneous field of view
Dwell time

SENSORS

Classification of sensors ACTIVE or

PASSIVE

Characteristics of sensors
Scanning mechanism
Whisk-broom
Push-broom
Resolution
Swath

WHISK BROOM SCANNING

Rotating mirror about a fixed

axis which sweeps across the
terrain to produce an image.
Return energy is focused on a
spectrometer / grating to
disperse into different bands.
After dispersion, the energy is
focussed on array of photovoltic
cells and energy in different
bands is calibrated.

ALONG TRACK

To achieve finer spatial and

spectral resolution, the dwell time
has to be increased.
Detectors
are
provided
for
individual ground resolution cell.
Detectors
array.

are

placed

in

linear

IFOV of each detector sweeps a

ground resolution cell along the
terrain parallel with the flight
track direction.

Also known as push broom scanners.

Increased dwell time results in
smaller IFOV, narrow spectral band
width, higher spectral resolution.

Characteristics of sensors:

Resolution:
Spatial resolution : Smallest distance on the earth surface
over which an independent measurement can be made. (Two
points can be viewed separately).
Spectral resolution : Ability of sensor to resolve EM energy
received in a given spectral bandwidth. (More no. of narrow
spectral bands - better discrimination)

Radiometric resolution - Ability to distinguish the finer

variations of the return energy from objects. (No. of levels)
Temporal resolution - Ability to have revisit over any given
area at regular interval. (Repitivity)

Swath:
It is the overall linear ground distance covered by the multispectral scanner in the across track direction

PANCHROMATIC

5.8 m resolution
70 km swath
26 degree tilt
Revisit - 5 days

WiFS

LISS III

23.5 70.5
142 148
0.52 - 0.59
0.62 - 0.68
0.77 - 0.86
1.55 - 1.70

188 m
810 km
0.62 - 0.68
0.77 - 0.86

Data Reception & Product generation:

Payload data is received at the ground station in X-band ans telemetry
data in S-band.
Data is recorded on a High Density Data Tape ( HDDT ).

Data is also simultaneously displayed on quick look displays.

Generation of photographic and digital products after various levels of
correction and processing.
A catalogue of data is generated as per REFERENCING SCHEME.

REFERENCING SCHEME :
Means for conveniently identifying the geographic
locations of points on earth.

Eliminates the use of latitude / longitude and facilitates

unique identification of geographic locations.
User can arrive at the total no. of scenes required.
The scheme is designated by PATH & ROW.

REFERENCING SCHEME
SCHEME : Means for
identifying
geographical locations
of the areas on earth,
designated by path &
rows.
PATH : Descending
ground trace of an
orbit. ( 14 per day for
IRS)

ROW : Rows are the

along the track
segmented frames
with ref to equator.

 TYPE OF REMOTE SENSING IMAGES

Photographic images

Digital images

Panchromatic , B/W infrared, Multi-spectral

CHARACTERISTIS OF IMAGE
Brightness and Tone
Contrast ratio
Detectability
Signature
Texture

IRS-1B

72 m

IRS-1C

36 m

IRS-1C
36 m

PART OF
TEHRAN
AS
VIEWED
BY PAN
SENSOR
5.6 M

PAN (5.6)
+
LISS III (23.5)

WiFS IMAGE OF WESTERN INDIA

IRS-1C

188 m

Ronald Reagan Airport in Washington DC

As viewed by IKONOS 1m PAN camera

White house As viewed by IKONOS 1m PAN camera

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

Microwave region of EM spectrum extends from

1 mm to 1 m.
Microwaves are capable of penetrating
atmosphere under virtually all conditions.

the

It can see through haze, clouds, light rain, smoke

etc.

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

RADAR : RAdio Detection And Ranging
Active Remote Sensing system

Airborne or Space borne

Operate Independent of lighting conditions
Day-night imaging capability
All weather imaging
Side looking
Penetrate earth surface up to few cms.

MICROWAVE SPECTRUM
BAND
Ka

WAVELENGTH (cm)
0.75 - 1.1

1.1 - 1.67

Ku

1.67 - 2.4

2.4 - 3.75

3.75 - 7.5

7.5 - 15

15 - 30

30 - 100

SLAR
[ Direction of energy
propagation]

Side looking
[ Flight direction]

Swath
MW energy is transmitted from an antenna in short bursts over a time
period ~ 10-6 sec towards the target.
If scattered, antenna will receive high radar return. If reflected, low
return to the antenna.
By measuring the return time of echo, distance ( slant range) to the
target can be determined.
SR = C T / 2

SPATIAL RESOLUTION

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

Unlike optical systems radars resolution is function of specific

properties of microwave radiation and geometrical effects.

Range Resolution
Spatial Resolution in the direction of energy propagation.

Depends upon pulse-length and depression angle.

Smaller the pulse-length, better the range resolution
Two targets will be resolved in range dimension, if their separation is
greater than half pulse-length

Range Resolution = T.C/ 2.cos

/2
T1

/2 cos T2

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

Azimuth Resolution
Spatial resolution in azimuth direction
It is a function of beam width in azimuth direction and the slant
range

BEAM WIDTH = / La
To improve azimuth resolution , either decrease the wavelength
or increase the antenna length.

Aircraft can have 1-2 meter antenna , Spacecraft can have 10-15
meter antenna
To overcome antenna size limitation, the forward motion of the
platform, special recording and processing of the back scattered
echoes are used to simulate a very long antenna and thus
increase azimuth resolution. ( Approach used in Synthetic
Aperture Radar)

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) - PRINCIPLES

SAR synthesizes
antenna

long antenna with the small

As the target first enters the radar beam the back

scattered echoes from each transmitted pulse begin
to be recorded
As the platform move forward, all echoes from the
target for each pulse are recorded during the entire
time that the target is within the beam.
The point at which the target leaves the radar beam,
determines the length of the simulated or synthesized
antenna

Radar image distortions

LAYOVER
Since to of the vertical
feature is reached before
base.

FORESHORTENING
/ SHADOW

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

Back-scattering
Back-scattering depends upon Surface roughness
Rough surfaces scatter energy in all directions
Smooth surfaces reflect most of the energy away
from the sensor
Incidence angle
Incidence angle of 0 to 30 slope dominates
Incidence angle above 70 shadow dominates

Corner reflections
Dielectric constant

Penetration
When return from sub-surface target dominate the
response, The recorded image shows sub-surface

details
Dielectric constant (electrical property) of the target
material determines penetration.
More the moisture content lesser the penetration.

RADAR

OPTICAL

PENETRATION
CAPABILITY

SIR-A

Sub-surface
drainage in
arid region

CORNER REFLECTION

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