Muscular System, Bones, Blood

Muscular System

INTRODUCTION
Myology is the study of muscles. Muscles one of the mechanical effector systems of the body. Structurally the muscle is an organ containing two basic tissues,the muscular tissue and connective tissue.

Functions
Movement both voluntary & involuntary Maintaining posture Supporting soft tissues within body cavities Guarding entrances & exits of the body Maintaining body temperature

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES
STRUCTURAL & FUNCTIONAL
a. Skeletal Muscles b. Cardiac Muscle c. Smooth Muscle

 Skeletal muscle tissue Associated with & attached to the skeleton

Under our conscious (voluntary) control Microscopically the tissue appears striated Cells are long, cylindrical & multinucleate

Cardiac muscle tissue

Makes up myocardium of heart Unconsciously (involuntarily) controlled Microscopically appears striated Cells are short, branching & have a single nucleus

 Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue Makes up walls of organs & blood vessels
Tissue is non-striated & involuntary Cells are short, spindle-shaped & have a single nucleus

SKELETAL

SMOOTH

CARDIAC

Contraction

Voluntary

Involuntary

involuntary

Striation

Present

Absent

Present

Nerve supply Muscle cell

Somatic Multinucleated

Autonomic Spindle-shaped with single nucleus In internal viscera and blood vessels

Autonomic Branch and fuse together: with single nucleus In myocardium

Distribution

Attached to skeleton

CLASSIFICATION UPON VOLITION

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES
All Skeletal muscles

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES
Some muscles are not under the volition e.g. muscles of larynx, pharynx upper two third of oesophagus etc.

BOTH VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES

E.g. diaphragm

UPON MODE OF ATTACHMENT

MUSCLE DIRECTLY ATTACHED TO THE BONE
E.g. sternal and clavicular attachment of pec major.

MUSCLE INDIRECTLY ATTACHED TO THE BONE

Muscle attached through aponeurosis e.g. palmaris longus. Muscle attached through tendon e.g. lumbricals of hand.

MUSCLE INDIRECTLY ATTACHED TO THE SKIN

E.g. External anal sphincter

MUSCLE ATTACHED TO CARTILAGE

E.g. inferior constrictor

CLASSIFICATION UPON REGION

Muscle of head & Neck Muscle of Abdomen, thorax and pelvis Muscle of upper limb Muscle of Lower Limb

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Origin Muscle attachment that remains fixed Insertion Muscle attachment that moves Action What joint movement a muscle produces i.e. flexion, extension, abduction, etc.

Origin and Insertion

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Skeletal muscle movements

Flexion/extension Abduction/adduction Pronation/supination Elevation/depression

Protraction/retraction
Dorsiflexion/plantarflexion Inversion/eversion

An Overview of the Major Skeletal Muscles

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Figure 7-12(a)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Figure 7-12(b)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Figure 7-12(c)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Anterior Neck

Figure 7-13

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Spine

Figure 7-14

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Oblique and Rectus Muscles and the Diaphragm

Figure 7-15(a)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Oblique and Rectus Muscles and the Diaphragm

Figure 7-15(b)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Oblique and Rectus Muscles and the Diaphragm

Figure 7-15(c)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Shoulder

Figure 7-17(a)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles of the Shoulder

Figure 7-17(b)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles that Move the Arm

Figure 7-18(a)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles that Move the Arm

Figure 7-18(b)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Forearm and Wrist

Figure 7-19

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Thigh

Figure 7-20(a)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Thigh

Figure 7-20(b)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Leg

Figure 7-21

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Foot and Toes

Figure 7-22(a)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Foot and Toes

Figure 7-22(b)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Foot and Toes

Figure 7-22(c)

Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscles That Move the Foot and Toes

Figure 7-22(d)

Muscle Atrophy
Reduction in muscle size, tone, and power. Due to reduced stimulation, it loses both mass and tone. Muscle becomes flaccid, and its fibers decrease in size and become weaker. Even a temporary reduction in muscle use can lead to muscular atrophy.

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Muscle Hypertrophy
An increase in muscle fiber size. Muscle size may be improved by exercising. Repetitive, exhaustive stimulation of muscle fibers results in more mitochondria, larger glycogen reserves, and an increased ability to produce ATP. Ultimately, each muscle fiber develops more myofibrils, and each myofibril contains a larger number of myofilaments.
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General Anatomy of Bones

Function of bones
Support of the body Protection of soft organs Movement due to attached skeletal muscles Storage of minerals and fats Blood cell formation Assists in function of a region

(Pnuematic bones) reduce weight,produce resonance to voice.

Bone composition
Consists of organic and inorganic components. 1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic by weigh Organic component: connective tissue Inorganic component: mineral part.

Classification of bones

1.Classification based on development of bones:

Intramembranous osssification: Develops from mesenchymatous sheaths through intramembranous ossification. Example: clavicle Endochondrial ossification: Mesenchymatous tissue transforms into cartilagenous modle which then transform into bony tissue through intracartilagenous ossification Example: all limb bones

2.Classification based on regions

There are 206 named bones in the human body. Each belongs to one of 2 large groups:

Axial skeleton: Forms long axis of body

Includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. These bones are involved in protection, support, and carrying other body parts.

Appendicular skeleton:
Bones of upper & lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder bones and hip bones) that attach them to the axial skeleton. Involved in locomotion.

3.Structural classification
Compact /Cortical bone : Trabeculae are densely and regularly packed with almost absent intertrabecular spaces. Site: Shaft of long bones Function is to bear stress and strain due to muscle. Radio opaque

Contd
Spongy/Cancellous bones: Trabeculae are irregularly and loosely spaced. More intertrabecular spaces showing honeycomb apperance. Site: Ends of long bone Function:Bear compression forces at joints,contains haemopoitis tissue Radiolucent

Classification of Bones by Shape

Figure 6.1

4.Classification based on shape and size:

Long bones Example:clavicle,tibia,femur, humerus

Contd
Miniature long bones: example:metacarples,metatarsal,phalynges

Contd
Short bones: Example:carpal,tarsal bones

Contd
Flat bones: Examples:bones of skull cap,ribs sternum and scapula

Contd
Irregular bones : Hip bone,vertebra,mandible,base of skull

5.Miscellaneous classification
Sesmoid bones: Nodules of bones develop in tendon Reduce friction and alter the line of pull of muscles Example:patella,pisiform

Sesamoid bones

Pneumatic bones: Widely spaces,lined by epithelial membrane, filled by air sinuses Example:maxillary,front al, ethmoidal and sphenoidal sinuses

BLOOD

INTRODUCTION
Blood is a specialized C.T. consisting of cells & an extracellular component, plasma Total volume of blood in a normal adult is about 6 liters The quantity of blood (formed element & plasma) constitutes about 7-8 % of total body weight

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
Transport nutrients and oxygen directly or indirectly to the cells
Transport of wastes and carbon dioxide away from the cells Carrying hormones and other regulating agents to and from the cells and tissues of the body

Maintenance of homeostasis by acting as a buffer and by participating in coagulation and thermoregulation Transporting humoral agents and cells of immune system that protect the body from infections, foreign cells, foreign proteins, and transformed cells, i.e., cancer cells.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

Blood consists of formed elements, cells and their derivatives, and a protein-rich fluid called plasma. The formed elements include:

Red

blood cells, also called erythrocytes White blood cells, also called leukocytes Platelets

BLOOD PLASMA

MAJOR PLASMA PROTEINS

Protein

Albumin Globulins Complement proteins Clotting factors Plasma lipoproteins

RED BLOOD CELLS

(ERYTHROCYTES)
These

are anucleate, biconcave disc devoid of typical organelles role is restricted

Their

to:
binding oxygen for delivery to the tissues and, in exchange, binding carbon dioxide for removal from the tissues.

ERYTHROCYTE (RED BLOOD CELL)

Life span in blood: About 120 days.

Size and shape:

biconcave disk, flexible: RBCs normally bend to pass through small capillaries

RED BLOOD CELLS IN A BLOOD SMEAR

RBC

Platelet

Mizoguti slide collection (J). J-199.

HEMOGLOBIN IN ERYTHROCYTES

Every erythrocyte is filled with approximately 280 million molecules of a red-pigmented protein called hemoglobin. Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide, and is responsible for the characteristic bright red color of arterial blood.

HEMOGLOBIN IN ERYTHROCYTES
Each hemoglobin molecule consists of four protein building blocks, called globins. Alpha (a) chains and beta (b) chains.

LEUKOCYTES
The leukocytes function in the connective tissues. They arise, function and die outside the bloodstream, using the blood circulation merely as a means of transportation from their place of origin to their destination in the connective tissue.

COMPARISON WITH ERYTHROCYTES:

Leukocytes

posses a nucleus Contain no hemoglobin Their normal count is less than that of the RBC; the normal variation being 5,000 to 10,000 cells per cubic mm of blood in adults. The count is higher in children. The number of white blood cells may increase or decrease under certain diseased conditions.

LEUKOCYTES
Depending on the presence or absence of specific stainable granules in the cytoplasm, the white blood cells are classified into -GRANULOCYTES (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) -AGRANULOCYTES (lymphocytes, monocytes)

GRANULOCYTES

PLATELETS
Platelets are small, membrane bounded, anucleate, cytoplasmic fragments derived from megakaryocytes .

 Upon

entry into the vascular system from the bone marrow the platelets circulate as discoid structures, about 2 to 3 um in diameter. Their life span is about 10 days.

PLATELET FUNCTIONS
Aggregationa platelet plug is formed as a first step to stop bleeding. Blood coagulation to form a blood clot, or thrombus.