Chapter 5

Sampling and Sampling Distributions
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Understand the importance of sampling Differentiate between random and non-random sampling
Understand the concept of sampling and non-sampling errors

Understand the concept of sampling distribution and the application of central limit theorem Understand sampling distribution of sample proportion
Sampling
A researcher generally takes a small portion of the population for
study, which is referred to as sample. The process of selecting a sample from the population is called sampling.
Why Is Sampling Essential?

Sampling saves time. Sampling saves money. When the research process is destructive in nature, sampling minimizes the destruction. Sampling broadens the scope of the study in light of the scarcity of resources. It has been noticed that sampling provides more accurate results, as compared to census because in sampling, nonsampling errors can be controlled more easily. In most cases complete census is not possible and, hence, sampling is the only option left.
Figure 5.1: Steps in the sampling design process
The Sampling Design Process

Step 1: Target population must be defined
Target population is the collection of the objects which possess the information required by the researcher and about which an inference is to be made. A researcher takes a sample from a population list, directory, map, city directory, or any other source used to represent the population. This list possesses the information about the subjects and is called the sampling frame. Sampling is carried out from the sampling frame and not from the target population.
Step 2: Sampling frame must be determined
The Sampling Design Process (Contd.)

Step 3: Appropriate sampling technique must be selected
In sampling with replacement, an element is selected from the frame, required information is obtained, and then the element is placed back in the frame. This way, there is a possibility of the element being selected again in the sample. As compared to this, in sampling without replacement, an element is selected from the frame and not replaced in the frame. This way, the possibility of further inclusion of the element in the sample is eliminated. Sample size refers to the number of elements to be included in the study.
Step 4: Sample size must be determined
Step 5: Sampling process must be executed
Random Versus Non-random Sampling
In random sampling, each unit of the population has the same probability (chance) of being selected as part of the sample. In non-random sampling, members of the sample are not selected by chance. Some other factors like familiarity of the researcher with the subject, convenience, etc. are the basis of selection
Figure 5.2: Random and non-random sampling methods
Random Sampling Methods

Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Stratified Random Sampling

In stratified random sampling, elements in the population are divided into homogeneous groups called strata. Then, researchers use the simple random sampling method to select a sample from each of the strata. Each group is called stratum. In stratified random sampling, stratum should be relatively homogenous and the strata should contrast with each other.
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Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)

In cases where the percentage of sample taken from each stratum is proportionate to the actual percentage of the stratum within the whole population, stratified sampling is termed as proportionate stratified sampling. In cases where the sample taken from each stratum is disproportionate to the actual percentage of the stratum within the whole population, disproportionate stratified random sampling occurs.
Figure 5.5: Stratified random sampling based on educational levels
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Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)

Cluster (or Area) Sampling
In cluster sampling, we divide the population into non-overlapping areas or clusters. In stratified sampling, strata happen to be homogenous but in cluster sampling, clusters are internally heterogeneous. A cluster contains a wide range of elements and is a good representative of the population.
Figure 5.6: Diagram for cluster sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 12
Systematic (or Quasi-random) Sampling
In systematic sampling, sample elements are selected from the population at uniform intervals in terms of time, order, or space. A researcher wants to take a sample of size 30 from a population of size 900 and he has decided to use systematic sampling for this purpose.
For obtaining the sample, the first member can be selected randomly and after that every 30th member of the population is included in the sample. Suppose the first element 3 is selected randomly and after this, every 30th element, that is, 33rd, 63rd, element up to a sample size of 30 are included in the sample.
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Multi-Stage Sampling
As the name indicates, multistage sampling involves the selection of units in more than one stage.
Figure 5.7: Multi-stage (four stages) sampling

Non-Random Sampling
Sampling techniques where selection of the sampling units is not based on a random selection process are called nonrandom sampling techniques.
Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, certain subclasses, such as age, gender, income group, and education level are used as strata. Stratified random sampling is based on the concept of randomly selecting units from the stratum. However, in case of quota sampling, a researcher uses non-random sampling methods to gather data from one stratum until the required quota fixed by the researcher is fulfilled.
In convenience sampling, sample elements are selected based on the convenience of a researcher.
Convenience Sampling
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Non-Random Sampling (Contd.)

Judgement Sampling
In judgement sampling, selection of the sampling units is based on the judgement of a researcher.
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, survey respondents are selected on the basis of referrals from other survey respondents.
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Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Sampling Error
Sampling error occurs when the sample is not a true representative of the population. In complete enumeration, sampling errors are not present. Sampling errors can occur due to some specific reasons: Faulty selection of the sample. Sometimes due to the difficulty in selection a particular sampling unit, researchers try to substitute that sampling unit with another sampling unit which is easy to be surveyed. Sometimes researchers demarcate sampling units wrongly and hence, provide scope for committing sampling errors.
Sampling and Non-sampling Errors (Contd.)

Non-Sampling Errors All errors other than sampling can be included in the category of nonsampling errors. The following are some common non-sampling errors: Faulty designing and planning of survey Response errors Non-response bias Errors in coverage Compiling error and publication error
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Sampling Distribution
Let us take a small finite population of size N = 6. Elements of the population are as below: 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 The shape of the distribution of this population is determined by using MS Excel histogram. We take a sample of size 2 from this population with replacement.
Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution prob.xls Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution (normal).xls
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Central Limit Theorem

A population has a mean and standard deviation . If a sample of size n is drawn from the population for sufficiently large sample size (n 30); the sample means are approximately normally distributed regardless of the shape of the population distribution. If the population is normally distributed, the sample means are normally distributed, for any size of the sample. In case where sample means are normally distributed, z formula applied to sample mean will be
The revised version of the z formula can be presented as below:
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Example 5.1
The distribution of the annual earnings of the employees of a cement factory is negatively skewed. This distribution has a mean of Rs 25,000 and standard deviation of Rs 3000. If a researcher draws a random sample of size 50, what is the probability that their average earnings will be more than Rs 26,000?
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Example 5.1 (Contd.)
Figure 5.10: Probability that the average earnings of employees is more than Rs 26,000
Figure 5.11: Corresponding z scores for probability of average earnings more than Rs 26,000
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Use of Excel and SPSS

Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Ex 5.1.xls Ch 5 Solved Examples\Minitab\Ex 5.1.MPJ
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Case of Sampling from a Finite Population

Example 5.1 is based on the assumption that the population is extremely large or infinite. In case of a finite population, a statistical adjustment called finite correction factor can be incorporated into the z formula for sample mean.
After applying this finite correction factor, the z formula becomes:
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Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion
Figure 5.12 : Using sample proportion to make an inference about the population proportion
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Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion
Example 5.2 In a population of razor blades, 15% are defective. What is the probability of randomly selecting 90 razor blades and finding 10 or less defective?
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Example 5.2 (Solution)
Figure 5.13: The probability of randomly selecting 90 razor blades and finding 10 or less defective
Example 5.2 (Solution)
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Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Understand the concept of sampling and non-sampling errors

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Why Is Sampling Essential?

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Figure 5.1: Steps in the sampling design process

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

The Sampling Design Process

Step 2: Sampling frame must be determined

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

The Sampling Design Process (Contd.)

Step 4: Sample size must be determined

Step 5: Sampling process must be executed

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Random Versus Non-random Sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Figure 5.2: Random and non-random sampling methods

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Random Sampling Methods

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)

Figure 5.5: Stratified random sampling based on educational levels

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)

Figure 5.6: Diagram for cluster sampling

Systematic (or Quasi-random) Sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Figure 5.7: Multi-stage (four stages) sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Non-Random Sampling (Contd.)

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Sampling and Non-sampling Errors (Contd.)

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution prob.xls Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution (normal).xls

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Central Limit Theorem

The revised version of the z formula can be presented as below:

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Example 5.1 (Contd.)

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Use of Excel and SPSS

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Case of Sampling from a Finite Population

After applying this finite correction factor, the z formula becomes:

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Example 5.2 (Solution)

Example 5.2 (Solution)

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

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