Vol. 35: No.

1 Jan-Mar 2008

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE NON-CAPTIVE FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, DEHIWALA AND ITS ENVIRONS IN SRI LANKA
by D.M.S.S. Karunarathna, D.A.M.M. Athukorale, W.A.A.D.G. Pradeep, J.K.P.P.D. Jayawardena, K.P.A. Rashintha, W.W.D.H.P. Perera, W.A.D.S.P. Wijesinghe and M.H.S.A. Jayasekara

| Some observations on the non-captive faunal diversity in the National Zoological Gardens, Dehiwala |

Introduction espite its relatively small land area of 65,650 km2, Sri Lanka is a biodiversity hotspot rich in faunal assemblages (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Meegaskumbura et al., 2002; Surasinghe, 2006). Wet and dry zones are determined by differential rainfall from the northeast and southwest monsoons. Remarkably, much of this endemic biodiversity is concentrated in the wet, southwestern portion of the island, which covers a mere 15,000 km2. Favorable environmental factors such as high rainfall and humidity, and diverse habitats support a rich faunal assemblage, especially in the wet zone of the island. The distribution of fauna in the island is governed by the geology, altitude, climate, geography and habitats (Goonawardena et al., 2006; Pethiyagoda, 2005). The National Zoological gardens of Sri Lanka, or the Zoo as it is popularly known, serves both educational and recreational purposes (Weinman, 1957), and also functions as a national heritage center (Malsinghe et al., 2004). Apart from the exotic as well as native animals held in captivity, these premises also harbor several species of noncaptive native animals in different habitat types; however, these naturally occurring animals within the zoo and its immediate environs have not been studied previously. Therefore, the Research Committee of the Young Zoologists Association (YZA) decided to conduct a survey on the biodiversity of the National Zoological Gardens (NZG) and its environs. The main objective of this survey was to document the vanishing urban biodiversity sustained by the NZG, in order to raise

conservation awareness and promote relevant actions to conserve this urban biodiversity refuge. Study area The NZG is approximately 19 acres in extent, located at a mean elevation of 25 m above sea level. The NZG area lies at the intersection of 650 northern latitudes and 7954 eastern longitudes, approximately 2 km from Dehiwala town and 11 km from Colombo (Weinman, 1957). Mean annual temperature is approximately 29.4 C and average annual rainfall for the study area is >2,500 mm (Somasekaran, 1988). The NZG consists of several habitat types which can be categorized as small grasslands, scrublands, several small ponds, home gardens, man-made habitats and large shady trees (i.e., Ficus spp.). Methodology The present study was carried out during JanuaryApril 2006. A total of 12 days were spent for fieldwork during the four months. General area surveys were carried out in different habitat types within the NZG. Surveys were conducted during both day and night and flashlights were used at night. All collected species were examined carefully and their measurements noted down before being released back to the same habitats. The diagnostic keys given by Dutta and Manamendra-Arachchi (1996), Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (2005), Manamendra-Arachci and Pethiyagoda (2006), Das and De Silva (2005), Deraniyagala (1953), Deraniyagala (1955), De Silva (1990), De Silva (1980), Harrison (1999), Rasmussen and Anderton (2005), D Abrera (1998), Woodhouse
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| Some observations on the non-captive faunal diversity in the National Zoological Gardens, Dehiwala |

(1950), Pethiyagoda (1991) and Phillips (1980) were used for species identification. Results The study (the first such survey within the NZG) recorded 100 species of vertebrate fauna and 52 species of butterflies (Table 1). Of the total number of species recorded, 11 (7%) are endemic, while 16 (10%) are nationally threatened (IUCN Sri

Lanka, 2000). The vertebrates comprised 12 species of amphibians, 21 species of reptiles, 10 species of mammals, 53 species of birds, and 4 species of fishes. Birds were the most abundant faunal group in NZG, according to the present survey, while fish were the least abundant fauna group. Among the butterflies recorded, the Silverstreak blue Iraota timoleon is a very rare butterfly species, and this survey is a second site record after D Abrera (1998), and a new site record for Sri Lanka after 50 years.

Table 1: Faunal diversity of the NZG and its vicinity Taxa Amphibians Birds Fishes Mammals Reptiles Butterflies Total
Discussions The amphibians consisted of 12 species (3 endemics) belonging to 3 families (Appendix 1), including toads, narrow-mouthed frogs, aquatic frogs and tree frogs. These represented approximately 11.6 % of the total amphibian species in the island. Among them, 3 species are very common - the common toad (Bufo melanostictus), Skipper frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis) and Common paddy field frog (Fejervarya limnocharis), while 5 species are very rare at NZG - Red narrow mouth frog (Microhyla rubra), Small wood frog (Rana aurantiaca), Sri

Total no. of species 12 53 4 10 21 52 152

Endemic species 3 3 0 1 5 0 12

Threatened species 3 2 0 1 5 6 17

Individual Counts 36 274 162 48 73 428 1,021

Lanka wood frog (Rana gracilis), Common hourglass tree frog (Polypedates cruciger) and Chunam tree frog (Polypedates maculates). Most of these species could be observed after a short spell of rain. Three species are nationally threatened. The reptiles consisted of 22 species (5 endemics) belonging to 6 families (Appendix 2), covering 11.3% of the islands reptile fauna. These included 12 species of tetrapod reptiles and 10 species of Serpentoid reptiles. Five species are nationally threatened. The Green garden lizard (Calotes calotes), Common garden lizard (Calotes versicolor), Four-claw gecko (Gehyra mutilata), Spotted house gecko (Hemidactylus brookii), Common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), Common rat snake (Ptyas mucosa), Land monitor (Varanus bengalensis) and Water monitor (Varanus salvator) were very common reptiles at the NZG. The Sri Lanka keelback (Xenochrophis asperrimus), Ganss lankaskink (Lankascincus gansi) and Dumeruls kuki snake (Oligodon sublineatus) are rare in the NZG. A total of 10 species of mammals, belonging to 7 families, were recorded in NZG (Appendix 3), covering 7.6% of the islands mammal fauna. This

Polypedates maculates (Chunam tree frog)

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includes the endemic and threatened Purple-faced leaf monkey (Trachypithecus vetulus). The mammals have diverse food habits, and can be categorized as granivorus, frugivorous, carnivorous and insectivorous. The Flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), Brown mongoose (Herpestes brachyurus), Grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), Mole rat (Bandicota bengalensis), Malabar bandicoot (Bandicota indica), Common rat (Rattus rattus) and Palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) were very common mammals, while the Painted bat (Kerivoula picta) and Purple-faced leaf monkey (Trachypithecus vetulus) are very rare species in the NZG. The single troop of Trachypithecus vetulus consisted of six individuals. Bandicota indica (Malabar bandicoot) Photo: V.A.P. Samarawickrama

| Some observations on the non-captive faunal diversity in the National Zoological Gardens, Dehiwala |

Xenochrophis asperrimus (Sri Lanka keelback) White-throated kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis), Greater coucal (Centropus sinensis), Rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri) and Rock pigeon (Columba livia) were commonly found birds, while the Crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela), Sri Lanka yellow-fronted barbet (Megalaima flavifrons) and Stork-billed Kingfisher (Halcyon capensis) are very rare species at NZG. A total of 4 species of fishes, belonging to 4 families, were recorded in NZG (Appendix 5). All fish species are exotics in the water ponds and no native species were recorded. Species such as Hypostomus plecostomus and Oreochromis mossambicus are invasive alien species. The fish fauna is mainly based in the Gal wala area at the NZG and others are found around Lion Island. The most common fish species is Oreochromis mossambicus, while Osphronemus goramy is rare in the NZG. These fish form an important component of the diet of water birds such as Pelecanus philippensis and Phalacrocorax fuscicollis in the NZG. Crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela) (Photo: L.J.M. Wickramasinghe)

Birds appeared to be the dominant group of vertebrates at NZG, consisting of 53 species (2 endemic) belonging to 23 families (Appendix 4). NZG has become a paradise for birds, including many migratory species, and these represent approximately 11.4% of the Sri Lankan avifauna. Among the total species recorded at NZG were 2 winter migrants, 1 globally threatened species (Pelecanus philippensis) and 2 nationally threatened species. The mixture of vegetation types and aquatic habitats in NZG makes it an ideal ecotone for a variety of birds; about half of the birds species recorded were associated with wetland ecosystems, such as herons, egrets, cormorants, kingfishers and pelicans which feed on aquatic organisms. The NZG Gal wala is an important breeding habitat for native birds, and it is also a preferred feeding and resting habitat of several other species. The Brown-headed barbet (Megalaima zeylanica),

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Fifty-two species of butterflies were recorded in the NZG, belonging to 5 families (Appendix 6). The butterflies found in NZG represented approximately 20.5% of the total species in Sri Lanka. Six species are nationally threatened. Lime butterfly (Papilio domoleus), Tailed jay (Graphium Agamemnon), Psyche (Leptosia nina), Jezebel (Delias eucharis), Mottled emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe), Common grass yellow (Eurema hecabe), Common tiger (Danaus genutia), Grey pansy (Junonia atlites), Tawny costor (Acraea violae), White four-ring (Ypthima ceylonica), Common cerulean (Jamides celeno) (Fig. 4) and Tiny grass blue (Zizula hylax) were common species. The Three-spot grass yellow (Eurema blanda), Apefly (Spalgis epeus), Indian sunbeam (Curetis thetis), Redspot (Zesius chrysomallus) and Silverstreak blue (Iraota timoleon) were rare butterfly species at the NZG. Conclusions During the survey period, several threats to the non-captive biodiversity in the NZG were observed including water pollution and use of chemicals. This preliminary investigation of the fauna of the NZG clearly shows that it is an important location in terms of biodiversity. It also evident that NZG is an important refuge for threatened faunas in the wet zone. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Dr. Channa Bambaradeniya (IUCN The World Conservation Union) for reviewing the manuscript. We would also like to thank Mr. Tiran Abeywardena, Mr. Panduka Silva, Mr. Thasun Amarasinghe, Mr. Ramyanath Sirimanna, Mr. Gihan, Mr. Jeewana, Mr. Ziyard, Mr. Asanka, Mr. Praneeth, Mr. Suranga, Mr. Nirmala, Mr. Faraj, Mr. Thilina, Mr. Deepankara, Miss. Indika, Miss. Jayathri, Miss. Malithi, Miss. Kosalani and Miss. Thilina (YZA Young Zoologists Association) and research committee members for their kind help during the field visit and other activities in the National Zoological Gardens. We wish to extend our heartfelt gratitude to Mrs. Renuka

Bandaranayeke, Mrs. Dammika Malsinghe and other support field staff of the NZG.
References Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D.J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M.M., Manamendra-arachchi, K., Ng, P.K.L., Schneider, C.J., Oommen, O.V. & M.C. Milinkovitch. 2004. Local endemism within the Western Ghats Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Science, 306: 479481. D abrera, B. 1998. The Butterflies of Ceylon. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Das, I. & A. De Silva 2005. Snakes and other Reptiles of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers. De Silva, P. H. D. H. 1980. Snake Fauna of Sri Lanka: with special reference to skull, dentition and venom in snakes, National Museums of Sri Lanka. De Silva, A. 1990. Colour Guide to the snakes fauna of Sri Lanka. R & A Publishing Ltd, Avon, England. Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1953. A Colored Atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, Tetrapod Reptilia, National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Vol. 02. Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1955. A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon, Serpentoid Reptilia, National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Vol. 03. Dutta, S.K. & K.N. Manamendra-Arachchi. 1996. The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Goonewardena, S., Drake, J. & A. De Silva. 2006. The Herpetofauna of the Knuckles range. Lyriocephalus, 6(1&2): 17-32. Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & C.V.S. Gunatilleke. 1990. Distribution of floristic richness and its conservation in Sri Lanka. Conservation Biology, 4(1): 21-31. Harrison, J. 1999. A Field Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press Inc, New York. IUCN Sri Lanka. 2000. The 1999 Red List of Threatened fauna & flora of Sri Lanka. Colombo, IUCN Sri Lanka. Malsinghe, D., Senarath, N., Premalal, S., Jayantha, L.P. & R.A. Rathnasiri. 2004. The Butterfly Park of the National Zoological Garden, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Zoos Print Magazine, 19(5): 5-7. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & R. Pethiyagoda. 2005. The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus Gistel, 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae) with description of 27 new
(continued on p.17)

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species. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 163-303. Manamendra_Arachchi, K. & R. Pethiyagoda 2006. Amphibians of Sri Lanka (text in sinhala). Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Bahir, M.M., Milinkovitch, M.C, & C.J. Schneider. 2002. Sri Lanka: an Amphibian hotspot. Science, 298: 379. Pethiyagoda, R. 1991. Fresh water Fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Pethiyagoda, R. 2005. Introdution: Exploring Sri Lankas biodiversity. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 1 - 4. Phillips, W.W.A. 1980. Manual of the mammals of Sri Lanka. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka (Part - I / II / III).

and 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions, Washington, D.C. and Barcelona. Somasekaran, T. 1988. The National Atlas of Sri Lanka. Surveys Department Sri Lanka. Surasinghe, T.D. 2006. Conservation overview of Herpetofauna of Sinharaja Man and Biosphere Reserve of Sri Lanka. Zoos Print Journal, 22(1): 2535-2538. Weinman, A.N. 1957. A zoological guide to the Zoological Gardens of Ceylon. Government Press of Ceylon. Woodhouse, L.G.O. 1950. The Butterfly fauna of Ceylon. Ceylon Government Press, Colombo. Authors address: c/o The Young Zoologists Association of Sri Lanka, Department of National Zoological Gardens, Anagarika Darmapala Mawatha, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. E-mail: [email protected]

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Rasmussen, P.C. & Anderton, J.C. 2005. Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vols. 1

Appendix 1: Amphibian species recorded from the National Zoological Gardens Family - Bufonidae 01 Bufo melanostictus (Common house toad) Family - Microhylidae 02 Kaloula taprobanica (Common bull frog) 03 Microhyla rubra (Red narrow mouth frog) 04 Ramanella variegate (White-bellied pugsnout frog) Family - Ranidae 05 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Skipper frog) 06 Fejervarya limnocharis (Common paddy field frog) 07 Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon's bull frog) 08 Rana aurantiaca (Small wood frog) TR 09 Rana gracilis (Sri Lanka wood frog) E / TR 10 Philautus popularis (Common shrub frog) E 11 Polypedates cruciger (Common hourglass tree frog) E / TR 12 Polypedates maculates (Chunam tree frog)

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Appendix 2: Reptile species recorded from the National Zoological Gardens Family - Bataguridae 01 Melanochelys trijuga (Black turtle) Family - Agamidae 02 Calotes calotes (Green garden lizard) 03 Calotes versicolor (Common garden lizard) Family Gekkonidae 04 Gehyra mutilate (Four-claw gecko) 05 Hemidactylus brookii (Spotted house gecko) 06 Hemidactylus frenatus (Common house gecko) Family Scincidae 07 Lankascincus fallax (Common lankaskink) E 08 Lankascincus gansi (Gans's lankaskink) E / TR 09 Lygosoma punctatus (Dotted skink) 10 Mabuya carinata (Common skink) Family Varanidae 11 Varanus bengalensis (Land monitor) 12 Varanus salvator (Water monitor) Family Colubridae 13 Ahaetulla nasuta (Green vine snake) 14 Amphiesma stolatum (Buff striped keelback) 15 Lycodon aulicus (Wolf snake, house snake) 16 Lycodon osmanhilli (Flowery wolf snake) E / TR 17 Oligodon sublineatus (Dumeruls kuki snake) E / TR 18 Ptyas mucosa (Common rat snake) 19 Sibynophis subpunctatus (Jerdons polyodent) E / TR 20 Xenochrophis asperrimus (Sri Lanka keelback) 21 Xenochrophis piscator (Checkered keelback) Family Typhlopidae 22 Ramphotyphlops braminus (Common blind snake)

Appendix 3: Mammal species recorded from the National Zoological Gardens Family Pteropodidae 01 Pteropus giganteus (Flying fox) Family - Vespertillionidae 02 Kerivoula picta (Painted bat) Family Cercopithecidae 03 Trachypithecus vetulus (Purple-faced leaf monkey) E / TR Family Herpestidae 04 Herpestes brachyurus (Brown mongoose) 05 Herpestes edwardsii (Grey mongoose) Family Viverridae 06 Paradoxurus hermaphoditus (Palm cat) Family Muridae 07 Bandicota bengalensis (Mole rat)
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08 Bandicota indica (Malabar bandicoot) 09 Rattus rattus (Common rat) Family Sciuridae 10 Funambulus palmarum (Palm squirrel)
Appendix 4: Bird species recorded from National Zoological Gardens Family Picidae 01 Dinopium benghalense (Black-rumped flameback) 02 Chrysocolaptes lucidus (Greater flameback) Family Magalaimidae 03 Megalaima zeylanica (Brown-headed barbet) 04 Megalaima flavifrons (Sri Lanka yellow-fronted barbet) E / TR 05 Megalaima rubricapilla (Crimson-fronted barbet) Family - Alcedinidae 06 Alcedo atthis (Common kingfisher) 07 Halcyon capensis (Stork-billed kingfisher) 08 Halcyon smyrnensis (White-throated kingfisher) Family - Meropidae 09 Merops philippinus (Blue-tailed bee-eater) Family - Cuculidae 10 Eudynamys scolopacea (Asian koel) Family - Centropodidae 11 Centropus sinensis (Greater coucal) Family - Psittacidae 12 Loriculus beryllinus (Sri Lanka hanging parakeet) E / TR 13 Psittacula eupatria (Alexandrine parakeet) 14 Psittacula krameri (Rose-ringed parakeet) Family - Apodidae 15 Collocalia unicolor (Indian swiftlet) 16 Apus affinis (House swift) Family - Strigidae 17 Otus sunia (Oriental scops owl) 18 Ninox scutulata (Brown hawk owl) Family - Columbidae 19 Columba livia (Rock pigeon) 20 Streptopelia chinensis (Spotted dove) Family - Accipitridae 21 Haliastur indus (Brahminy kite) 22 Spilornis cheela (Crested serpent eagle) 23 Accipiter badius (Shikra) Family - Phalacrocoracidae 24 Phalacrocorax niger (Little cormorant) 25 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Indian cormorant) Family - Ardeidae 26 Egretta garzetta (Little egret) 27 Ardea cinerea (Grey heron) 28 Ardea purpurea (Purple heron) 29 Casmerodius albus (Great egret) 30 Mesophoyx intermedia (Intermediate egret) 31 Bubulcus ibis (Cattle egret)
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32 Ardeola grayii (Pond heron) 33 Nycticorax nycticorax (Black-crowned night heron) Family - Pelecanidae 34 Pelecanus philippensis (Spot-billed pelican) Family - Ciconiidae 35 Anastomus oscitans (Asian openbill) Family - Laniidae 36 Lanius cristatus (Brown shrike) Family - Corvidae 37 Corvus splendens (House crow) 38 Corvus macrorhynchos (Large-billed crow) 39 Oriolus xanthornus (Black-hooded oriole) 40 Dicrurus caerulescens (White-bellied drongo) 41 Terpsiphone paradisi (Asian Paradise- flycatcher) 42 Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Common woodshrike) Family - Muscicapidae 43 Muscicapa daurica (Asian brown flycatcher) 44 Copsychus saularis (Oriental magpie robin) Family - Sturnidae 45 Acridotheres tristis (Common myna) Family - Hirundinidae 46 Hirundo rustica (Barn swallow) 47 Hirundo daurica (Red-rumped swallow) Family - Pycnonotidae 48 Pycnonotus cafer (Red-vented bulbul) Family - Nectariniidae 49 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Pale-billed flowerpecker) 50 Nectarina zeylonica (Purple-rumped sunbird) 51 Nectarina asiatica (Purple sunbird) 52 Nectarina lotenia (Lotens sunbird) Family - Passeridae 53 Passer domesticus (House sparrow)
Appendix 5: Fish species recorded from National Zoological Gardens Family Loricarridae 01 Hypostomus plecostomus (Tank cleaner) Family - Poecilidae 02 Poecilia reticulate (Guppy) Family Cichlidae 03 Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia) Family Osphronemidae 04 Osphronemus goramy (Giant gouramy)

Appendix 6: Butterfly species recorded from National Zoological Gardens Family - Papilionidae 01 Pachliopta hector (Crimson rose) 02 Pachliopta aristolochiae (Common rose) 03 Papilio domoleus (Lime butterfly) 04 Papilio polytes (Common mormon)

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05 Papilio polymnestor (Blue mormon) 06 Graphium doson (Common jay) 07 Graphium agamemnon (Tailed jay) Family - Pieridae 08 Leptosia nina (Psyche) 09 Delias eucharis (Jezebel) 10 Appias albina (Common albatross) 11 Catopsilia pyranthe (Mottled emigrant) 12 Catopsilia pomona (Lemon emigrant) Family - Nymphalidae 13 Eurema hecabe (Common grass yellow) 14 Eurema blanda (Three-spot grass yellow) 15 Ideopsis similis (Blue glassy tiger) 16 Tirumala limniace (Blue tiger) 17 Danaus chrysippus (Plain tiger) 18 Danaus genutia (Common tiger) 19 Euploea core (Common crow) 20 Euploea phaenareta (King crow) 21 Cupha erymanthis (Rustic) 22 Phalantha phantha (Leopard) 23 Junonia lemonias (Lemon pansy) 24 Junonia atlites (Grey pansy) 25 Junonia almana (Peacock pansy) 26 Hypolimnas bolina (Great eggfly) 27 Hypolimnas misippus (Danaid eggfly) 28 Neptis hylas (Common sailor) 29 Acraea violae (Tawny costor) 30 Melanitis leda (Common evening brown) 31 Orsotriaena medus (Nigger) 32 Ypthima ceylonica (White four-ring) 33 Elymnias hypermnestra (Common palmfly) Family - Lycaenidae 34 Spalgis epeus (Apefly) 35 Curetis thetis (Indian sunbeam) 36 Arhopala amantes (Large oakblue) TR 37 Zesius chrysomallus (Redspot) TR 38 Jamides bochus (Dark cerulean) 39 Jamides celeno (Common cerulean) 40 Catochrysops strabo (Forget-me-not) 41 Castalius rosimon (Common pierrot) TR 42 Zizeeria karsandra (Dark grass blue) 43 Zizina otis (Lesser grass blue) 44 Zizula hylax (Tiny grass blue) TR 45 Talicada nyseus (Red pierrot) 46 Abisara echerius (Plum Judy) 47 Iraota timoleon (Silverstreak blue) Family - Hesperiidae 48 Ampittia dioscorides (Hedge hopper) 49 Panara bada (Smallest swift) 50 Taractrocera maevius (Common grass dart) 51 Telicota ancilla (Dark palm dart) TR 52 Telicota colon (Pale palmdart) TR
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