ESP 171 WHITE PAPER

URBAN HEAT EFFECT

What is the Urban Heat Island Effect? The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect is when cities experience hotter temperatures than surrounding rural areas (Carlowicz, 2009). This occurs when natural vegetation is replaced with non-reflective water resistant surfaces (Rosenzwig et. al, 2006 ). Asphalt, concrete, and other abundant building materials absorb solar radiation during the day and release it at night which leads to the UHI effect. UHI causes the air temperature in urban cities to be 2 -5 C hotter than the surrounding environment (Carlowicz,
2009). However, UHI can be mitigated. Cool roofs, cool pavement, and additional trees and vegetation

are some of the mitigation strategies being practiced throughout the nation. Who is affected by UHI The effects of UHI are expected to intensify as the years progress due to global warming ( Corburn, 2011). Though it occurs throughout the year the effects of UHI are more pronounced in the
Figure 1: Source Source: http://uddebatt.wordpress.com

summer months when temperatures are higher. During this time UHI becomes a public concern (Solecki et. al, 2005). Exposure to excessive heat kills more people each year in the United States than all other weather related events combined( Corburn, 2011). Extreme heat events (exasperated by UHI) impact the urban poor, elderly, and infirm, than any other demographic group. The impacts of UHI and heat waves were seen in Europe in 2003 when 15,000 individuals (mostly the old and poor) were killed due to heat related illnesses and complications (Solecki et. al, 2005).

Mitigation Strategies The mitigation strategies of green roofs, cool pavements, cool roofs and additional vegetation can reduce the occurrence of UHI health related problems in addition to reducing air conditioning energy demand. Cool Roofs: Costs and Benefits Cool roofs are roof surfaces that are cool or only slightly higher than the ambient air temperature (Wood et. al, 2006). The most important characteristics of cool roofs are their albedo ( i.e. how reflective the roof is ---ie how white the roof is) and their emittance ( i.e. how much heat the roof / material absorbs and releases). The most efficient cool roofs have high albedo and low emittance. Cool roofs reduce energy bills, improve occupancy comfort, and have a longer lifespan than traditional roofs (Wood et. al, 2006). In a study conducted by the Lawrence Berkeley
Figure 2: Source http://www.couturaco.com

National Lab it was estimated that Los Angeles could reduce their energy costs by $35 million, New York by $16 million, and Chicago by $ 10 million if cool roof technology were implemented (Takebayashi, 2007). Cool roofs experience less heat transfer to the building below. As such, buildings with cool roofs remain cooler and use less energy (EPA, 2012). A reduction in energy usage also leads to reduced green house gases and smog production from power plants. However, they vary depending on location cool roof coatings cost between .75 to $ 1.50 per square foot (EPA, 2012). Single ply cool roof membranes ( typically used for residential and higher incline roofs) cost more and vary between $1.50-$3.00 per square foot (EPA, 2012).

Who uses cool roofs? Under California Title 24 many new buildings are employing cool roof technology (California Building Standards Commission, 2010). This title was adopted as a way to reduce the energy consumption of a building (What Is Title
Figure 3: Source http://www.coolroofcontractor.com Contractors painting a roof white to reflect solar radiation.

24 California, 2011). Under this title any new construction or alterations made to

existing buildings have to meet its standards. To meet these new standards many developers are installing cool roofs to reduce the energy consumption of a building. Many owners voluntarily decide to install cool roofs. In addition, many cities offer incentives to encourage its residents to use cool roof technology (EPA, 2012). The city of Sacramento is one such city. It offers a 20 cent per square foot rebate to residents who install cool roofs on flat roofs, and 10 cent rebate for sloped roofs (EPA, 2012). Cool pavements: Costs and Benefits Cool pavements are defined as roads that are constructed in specific ways to reduce the absorption and emittance of solar heat (Town of Gilbert, Arizona, 2006). Cool pavements are constructed in many ways. The three dominant ways are: roller compacted concrete, using light colored aggregate in asphalt, and applying concrete over darker colored asphalt ( Town of Gilbert, 2006) Many benefits are associated with cool pavements. They reduce water runoff and improve water quality. The higher permeability of the pavement allows water to soak into the soil reducing urban runoff and filtering
Figure 4: Source http://heatisland.lbl.gov/

pollutants out of the water. Such pavements are also beneficial to aquatic life. Because the pavements do not get as hot as traditional blacktop the temperature of runoff water is less hot. As such, aquatic life experiences less of a thermal shock when urban runoff is released into waterways (EPA Cool Pavements, 2011). The high permeability also improves public safety by increasing tire traction and reducing standing water during storms. Cool pavements also result in better nighttime visibility due to their high light reflectance. This could lead to a reduction in lighting and energy requirement. Last but not least cool pavements also offer increased comfort to citizens. Cool pavements in playgrounds, parking lots, and other places where people congregate provide a more comfortable environment by reducing ambient air temperatures. Cool pavements are most efficient when employed in parking lots roadways, and most other paved surfaces. There are not set standards for cool pavements. As such, the cost to implement them are only as expensive as the materials. Who uses Cool Pavements? types of cool pavements In 2001 the city of Sacramento started to use cool pavements. The Sacramento Cool Communities Program successfully installed one of the first cool pavement parking lots ( in CA) in Bannister Park(Balogh,2000). Coincidental to the passing of the California Green Building Standards Code in 2011 the use of cool pavements have been on the rise (EPA Initiatives for California, 2011). The city of Huston, Texas is also employing the use of cool pavements through the city wide Cool Huston! Plan in an effort to reduce UHI effect (Houston, 2005)
Figure 5: Source http://www.cleanairpartnership.org Examples of different

Trees and Vegetation: Costs and Benefits By reducing air temperature through evapotranspiration and extra shade, trees and extra vegetation have proven to be a very effective way in which to reduce UHI. In addition, these trees also lower energy costs, reduce erosion, reduce the amount of flooding, and increase
Figure 7: Source http://www.cbc.ca

biodiversity (Brown University, 2009). The effect of trees

on UHI depends on the ratio of paved to vegetated land and the size and location of the vegetation (Rosheidat et. al, 2010). For example, if only one tree were to be planted in the middle of a parking lot then it would have no effect on UHI and the ambient air temperature. Trees and vegetation are needed in urban areas to keep air quality acceptable. When there are no to little trees air quality is adversely effected in urban areas leading to asthma and other illnesses (Brown University, 2009). Trees reduce air temperature through evapotranspiration of water ( a process which absorbs heat from the air) and reduce pollution by filtering out Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and particulate matter from the air( Brown University, 2009) . The overall benefits of planting trees outweigh the costs. The city of Providence Rhode Island estimates that for every dollar they spent planting trees they receive $3.33 in benefits (ie reduced energy use and smog formation)( Brown University, 2009). Cities have to be aware however that they will need to plan for additional

pruning and maintenance if they decide

Figure 6: Source mayorsam.blogspot.com A picture of the 1 million tree initiative

to plant more trees. Who uses Trees and Vegetation? Many cities including Davis, Sacramento, and Los Angeles utilize trees and vegetation to mitigate UHI. Chapter 37 of the Davis Municipal code requires that at least 50% of any paved parking lot must by shaded with trees within 15 years of its construction( The City of Davis, 2010). Currently Los Angeles is in the middle of its Million Tree program in which they aim to plant 1 million trees throughout LA(mostly on public property). In addition, interested residents are applicable for free trees (up to 7) and planting and maintenance information from the city(Los Angeles, 2006). In 2006 Sacramento enacted the Urban Forests for Clean Air Program. These cities along with many across the state and Nation are beginning to employ tree planting initiatives to reduce UHI and improve their air quality. Concluding remarks and recommendations UHI is a very real problem in cities and is expected to grow as the effects of global warming increase. However, the potential health issues and environmental issues from UHI effect can be mitigated in various relatively cheap ways. It is this papers opinion that cool pavements are one of the easiest mitigation strategies a developer can employ to reduce UHI. Though initially, concrete costs more than asphalt due to the maintenance required by asphalt and the shorter life expectancy of the road, concrete ( ie cool pavements) pavements end up being cheaper overall in addition to reducing energy costs and the UHI effect (EPA Cool Pavements, 2011). Cool pavements can easily be integrated into current developments and road construction without changing current design or function. In addition it is the recommendation of this paper to introduce new building codes which require new developments to employ cool roof technology so that older ( darker) roofs will eventually be grandfathered out of cities/ neighborhoods. Trees and vegetation are also a very effective way in which to reduce UHI. However, before planting tress the city must think about and have a plan to provide the maintenance and upkeep that these trees require. They must budget for cutting and must keep in mind how these

additional trees will be effected by storms and high winds in their area ( ie they have to think about not only where to put the trees to reduce UHI but also where to place them so that they do not pose a potential danger to residents if they are to fall etc).

WORKS CITED

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