REFRIGERATION CYCLES

A refrigeration system removes thermal energy from a low-temperature region and transfers heat to a high-temperature region. The 1st law of thermodynamics tells us that heat flow occurs from a hot source to a cooler sink, therefore, energy in the form of work must be added to the process to get heat to flow from a low temperature region to a hot temperature region. These also include heat pumps and air conditioners systems The cycle on which they operate is a refrigeration cycle There are several refrigeration cycles:

Vapor-compression cycle Gas refrigeration cycle Cascade refrigeration Absorption refrigeration Thermoelectric refrigeration.

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps have a great deal in common. The primary difference is in the manner in which heat is utilized. The objective of a refrigerator according to the above figures is to remove heat (QL) from the

cold medium; the objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium and maintain its temperature. Cooling capacity (Refrigeration capacity) is expressed in tons of refrigeration (TR): 1 ton can freeze 1 ton of water to ice at 0C in 24 hr; equivalent to 211 kJ/min. The Carnot cycle can serve as the initial model of the ideal refrigeration cycle. It operates as a reversed heat engine cycle - transfers a quantity of heat, QL, from a cold source at temperature, TL .

REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

A reversed Carnot cycle consists of two reversible isothermal processes, and two isentropic processes, an expansion and a compression.

Process 1 2 : isentropic expansion of the working substance Process 2 3 : heat is absorbed from the cold medium (QL) at constant temperature (TL) . Process 3 4 : isentropic compression of the working substance (Win) . Process 4 1 : heat rejected to the surrounding medium (QH) at constant temperature (TH) .

A refrigerator or heat pump operating on such a cycle is a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump.

Cycle Analysis:

Q L = TL (s 3 s 2) Q H = TH (s 4 s 1) W in = Q net = Q H Q L = (T H T L)(s 3 s 2)
The coefficient of performance (COP) of the cycle is defined as For a Refrigerator (cooling)

For a heat pump (heating)

1. 2.

Notice that both COPs increase if the difference between TH and TL becomes smaller, i.e., if TH decreases or TL increases. This reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between two specific temperatures.

This Cycle can not be practically achieved due to the following reasons: 1. Processes 1 and 3 can be done in practice, as a constant pressure 2 4 will fix the temperature. 2. compression of a two-phase liquid, and 1 expansion in a turbine of a 2, high-moisture liquid (low quality), are not practical The latter two problems could be solved by executing the cycle outside the saturation dome . However, we would then have problems maintaining isothermal heat transfer conditions Thus, the reversed Carnot cycle is not a good model for refrigeration cycles, although it remains a useful standard.

THE IDEAL VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE

The problems with the Carnot cycle can be largely overcome by: Vaporizing the refrigerant completely before it is compressed Replacing the turbine in Carnot heat engine by a throttling device (expansion valve) The cyle T s and P h diagrams are shown in the following figures:

Assumptions for Ideal VCRC processes Irreversibilities within the evaporator, condenser and compressor are ignored No frictional pressure drops. Refrigerant flows at constant pressure through the two heat exchangers (evaporator and condenser). Stray heat losses to the surroundings are ignored.

The coefficient of performance (COP) of the cycle as a refrigerator

The coefficient of performance (COP) of the cycle as a heat pump

Note that: 3 of the 4 process lines are straight lines. The heat transfers 2-3 and 4-1 are proportional to the length of the line h. The h remains constant in the throttling process.

Improvement of the vapor compression cycle: 1- Increasing or decreasing the condenser pressure . 2- Increasing or decreasing the evaporator pressure.

3- subcooling the refrigerant liquid out from the condenser.

4- superheating the refrigerant vapor out from the evaporator. 5- subcooling and superheating with using heat exchanger.

Subcooling the refrigerant liquid exit from the condenser

Superheating the refrigerant vapor exit from the evaporator

Subcooling and superheating of refrigerant using heat exchanger

A HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATOR

Refrigeration cycle with some accessories:

Example: In the ideal vapor-compression refrigerator using refrigerant 134a, the evaporator temperature is -20C, and the inlet temperature to the condenser is 30C. Saturated vapor enters the compressor. Calculate: (a) The work of the compressor (b) The heat transfer from the condenser (c) The heat transfer to the evaporator (d) The coefficient of performance
Solution

Compressor work:

T2 is specified in the problem statement. T2 = 30C. s2 is determined by using the ideal compressor assumption. s2 = s1

We can see in Table that T2 = 30C and s2 = 0.9932 kJ/kgK is a state between P = 6.0 bars and 7.0 bars.

a)

b)

c)

d) Example: A refrigeration system using refrigerant 134a is to have a capacity of 25 tons. The cycle is the ideal vapor compression cycle in which the evaporator pressure is 0.22 MPa and he condenser pressure is 1.0 MPa. Determine the horsepower required to drive the compressor. Solution: P4 = P1 = 0.22 MPa , P2 = P3 = 1.0 MPa

Example: An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration system using refrigerant 134a operates with an evaporator temperature of -28C and a condenser exit temperature of 40C and requires a 100-hp motor to drive the compressor. Calculate the refrigerator's capacity in tons.

How to Choose a Refrigerant

Many factors need to be considered Ozone Depletion Potential 1. chlorinated and brominated refrigerants 2. acts as a catalyst to destroy ozone molecules 3. reduces the natural shielding effect from incoming ultra violet B radiation Global Warming Potential gases that absorb infrared energy gases with a high number of carbon-fluorine bonds generally have a long atmospheric lifetime Combustibility: all hydro-carbon fuels, such as propane Thermal Factors The heat of vaporization of the refrigerant should be high. The higher hfg, the greater the refrigerating effect per kg of fluid circulated. The specific heat of the refrigerant should be low. The lower the specific heat, the less heat it will pick up for a given change in temperature during the throttling or in flow through the piping, and consequently the greater the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant The specific volume of the refrigerant should be low to minimize the work required per kg of refrigerant circulated. Since evaporation and condenser temperatures are fixed by the temperatures of the surroundings - selection is based on operating pressures in the evaporator and the condenser. Selection is based on the suitability of the pressure-temperature relationship of the refrigerant. Other factors include: 1. chemical stability toxicity cost environmental friendliness does not . very low evaporator pressure very high condenser pressure

1-A refrigerator uses R-134a as the working fluid and operate on the ideal refrigeration cycle between 0.12 and 7 MPa . The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycle on the T-s diagram. Determine (a) the rate of the heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, (c) the coefficient of performance and the maximum cycle performance, and (d) the quality of the refrigerant at the end of throttling.

2-Refrigerant 134a is the working fluid in a vapor compression system with heating capacity of 7 kW. The condenser operate at 14 bar, and the evaporator temperature is -20 0C. the refrigerant is a saturated vapor at the evaporator exit and a saturated liquid at the condenser exit. The compression process is adiabatic, and the temperature at the compressor exit is 70 0C. Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant, (b) the compressor power input, (c) the isentropic compressor efficiency, and (d) the coefficient of performance. 3-A vapor compression refrigeration system with a capacity of 10 tons has superheated R-134-a vapor entering the compressor at 15 0C, 4 bar, and existing at 12 bar. The compression process can be taken as polytropic, with n=1.02. At the condenser exit, the pressure is 12 bar, and the refrigerant energy is 125.76 kJ/kg. The condenser is water cooled, with water entering at 20 0C and leaving at 30 0C. Determine (a) the power input and the heat transfer rate for the compressor, (b) the coefficient of performance. 4-A vapor-compression cycle, using R-134a as the working fluid, has evaporator and condenser pressures as 140 and 800 kPa, respectively. At the inlet and exit of the compressor the temperatures are -10 0C and 80 0C, respectively. The heat transfer rate from the working fluid passing through the condenser is 15 kW, and saturated liquid exits at 800 kPa. If the compressor operates adiabatically, determine (a) the compressor power input, (b) the coefficient of performance, and (c) the quality of the refrigerant entering the evaporator and what do recommend to improve the refrigeration capacity of the system in this case? 5-A vapor compression refrigeration system circulates R-134a at a rate of 6 kg/min. The refrigerant enters the compressor at -20 0C and 0.1 MPa, and exits at 1 MPa. The isentropic compressor efficiency is 67%. The cycle was equipped with heat exchanger, so the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a sub-cooled liquid at 1 MPa . Determine (a) the coefficient of performance, (b) the refrigeration capacity , in tons, (c) The volume flow rate of the refrigerant entering the compressor.

Air mixture and psychrometry

1. Composition of air Table 1. The composition of air.
Gases Constant gases Nitrogen, N2 Oxygen, O2 Argon, Ar Neon, Ne Helium, He Krypton, Kr Xenon, Xe Variable gases Water vapor, H2O 4.0% (maximum, in the tropics) 0.00001% (minimum, at the South Pole) Carbon dioxide, CO2 Methane, CH4 Hydrogen, H2 Nitrous oxide, N2O Carbon monoxide, CO Ozone, O3 Fluorocarbon 12, CF2Cl2 0.0365% (increasing ~0.4% per year) ~0.00018% (increases due to agriculture) ~0.00006% ~0.00003% ~0.000009% ~0.000001% - 0.0004% ~0.00000005% 78.08% 20.95% 0.93% 0.0018% 0.0005% 0.00011% 0.000009% Fraction of air

2.

Pressure: Barometer is an instrument that measures the atmospheric pressure. Table Units of pressure. Symbol atm mmHg(torr) Pa mbar(mb) Value of Patm (at sea level and 0oC) 1 atm 760 mm Hg (760 torr) 1.01325x105 Pa 1013.25 mbar

Unit atmosphere millimeters of mercury pascal millibar

Pressure Conversion:

1 bar = 103 mb = 105 Pa = 0.986923 atm = 106 g cm-1 s-2 3. Temperature. Air Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy or average speed of an air molecule. Thermometers are instruments to measure temperature. Conversion rules:

to convert from oF to oC: oC = (oF - 32o) . 5/9 to convert from oC to oF: oF = oC. 9/5 + 32o to convert from oC to oK: oC = oK - 273.16

Number concentration is the number of gas molecules in the sample of the volume: n = number concentration = total number of molecules / volume = N/V Units: number/m3 = molecules/m3 if V is in m3 Mass concentration is the mass of gas molecules in the sample of the volume: q = mass concentration = total mass of molecules / volume = M/V Units: kg/m3 ; g/cm3 ; g/m 3 NOTE: mass concentration of a gas = gas density

The mass of one mole, mg of the element is equal to its atomic mass in grams. = number of moles = mass of gas / molecular weight = M / mg or as = number of gas molecules/Avagodros number = N / NA Molar concentration is the number of moles a gas in the sample of the volume: c = molar concentration = number of moles / volume = /V Units: mol/m3 if V is in m3 Relationship between c and n: since c = /V and = N/NA , we obtain c = /V = (N/NA)/V = (N/V)/ NA = n/ NA thus c=n / NA Relationship between c and q: since n = q / m, we obtain c = n/ NA= (q/m) / NA= q / (m NA) = q / mg thus

c=q/ mg

Mixing ratio is defined as the ratio of the amount (or mass) of the substance in a given volume to the total amount (or mass) of all constituents in that volume. volume mixing ratio = number of molecules of i-th gas/number of air molecules ri = Ni / Na where Ni is the number of molecules of i-th gas, and Na is the number of molecules of air (total number of molecules of all individual gases in the atmosphere: Na = Ni ). NOTE: ri = Ni / Na = ni / na = i / a = ci / ca

mass mixing ratio = mass of molecules of i-th gas/mass of air molecules

ri,m = Mi / Ma where Mi is the mass of molecules of i-th gas, and Ma is the mass of molecules of air (total mass of molecules of all individual gases in the atmosphere: (Ma = Mi ). NOTE: ri,m = Mi / Ma = i / a

Mass mixing ratio and volume mixing ratio are related as: ri,m = i / a = mi ni/ ma na = mi/ma ni/na = mi/ma ri thus, mass mixing ratio of a certain component is its volume mixing ratio multiplied by its molecular weight and divided by the molecular weight of air (ma=28.97) 4.Gas laws. Boyles law: V ~ 1/P (at constant T and Charless law: V ~ T (at constant P and ) Avogadros law: V ~ (at constant P and T) Daltons law of Partial Pressures states that for a fixed temperature and volume (container), the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures that each of the individual component gases would have if placed alone in the same volume (container). P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.... = Pi where Pi is the partial pressure of i-th gas. If each gas behaves ideally, the Pi can be calculated from the ideal gas law: Pi = i R T / V Thus, the total pressure of the mixture is P = Pi = (i R T / V) = (RT/V) i = tot (RT/V) where tot=i is the total number of moles of gases in the mixture. Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of a given component in a mixture to the total number of moles in the mixture:

i = i / tot From the ideal gas law i = Pi (V / RT) Therefore, i = i / tot = Pi (V / RT) / {P (V / RT)} = Pi / P rearranging this expression as Pi = i P that is, the partial pressure of a particular component of a gaseous mixture is equal to the mole fraction of that component times the total pressure. NOTE: mole fraction is equivalent to the volume fraction. 5.Dry air and moist air. Total atmospheric pressure can be divided into the partial pressure exerted by air (Pd) and the partial pressure by water vapor (P ): thus Pa = Pd + Pv Similar the number concentration of air molecules can be divided into a dry and moist component: thus na = nd + nv where nd is the number concentration of dry air, nv is the number concentration of water vapor, and na is the number concentration of air. Equation of state for dry air: Pd = d R T/ V = nd kB T = d Rd T where d is the mass density of dry air, and Rd is the gas constant for dry air defined as Rd = R / md Equation of state for water vapor: Pv = v R T/ V = nv kB T= v Rv T

where v is the mass density of water vapor, and Rv is the gas constant for water vapor defined as Rv = R / mH2O NOTE: total air = moist air = dry air + water vapor Introduction to Psychrometry Important psychrometric properties: Dry bulb temperature (DBT) :is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments. Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and charts. ASHRAE suggests the following regression equation for saturated vapour pressure of water, which is valid for 0 to 100oC.

Wet bulb temperature (WBT): The wet bulb temperature is measured with a sling psychrometer or by a thermometer that has its bulb enclosed in a wet wick. Relative humidity () or (RH): is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapour in moist air to mole fraction of water vapor in saturated air (maximum water vapor content in the air) at the same temperature and pressure. Using perfect gas equation we can show that:

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When is 100 percent, the air is saturated. Note also that RH= 90% for very humid air (damp air ) and RH=20 % for very dry air.

Humidity ratio (): The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) W is the mass of water associated with each kilogram of dry air1. Assuming both water vapor and dry air to be perfect gases2, the humidity ratio is given by:

Which also can be eqaul v/ a. Substituting the values of gas constants of water vapour and air Rv and Ra in the above equation; the humidity ratio is given by:

For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated vapour pressure psat from the thermodynamic property tables on steam. Then using the above equation, we can find the humidity ratio at saturated conditions, Wsat. It is to be noted that, W is a function of both total barometric pressure and vapor pressure of water. Example: The specific humidity for saturated humid air at 20oC with water vapor partial pressure 2.333 Pa at atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa (1013 mbar, 760 mmHg) can be calculated as: = 0.62198 (2.333 Pda) / ((101.325 Pda) - (2.333 Pda)) = 0.0147 (kg/kg) = 14.7 (g/kg) Dew-point temperature(DPT): If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure, then the temperature at which the moisture in the air begins to condense is known as dew-point temperature (DPT) of air. An approximate equation for dew-point temperature is given by:

where is the relative humidity (in fraction). DBT & DPT are in oC. Of course, since from its definition, the dew point temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure of water vapour, it can be obtained from steam tables or using previous Eqn. Degree of saturation : The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio W to the humidity ratio of a saturated mixture Ws at the same temperature and pressure, i.e.,

Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the water vapour. Enthalpy values are always based on some reference value. For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0oC, and for water vapour the enthalpy of saturated water is taken as zero at 0oC. The enthalpy of moist air is given by: where cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, kJ/kg.K cpw = specific heat of water vapor, kJ/kg.K t = Dry-bulb temperature of air-vapor mixture, oC = Humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/kg of dry air ha = enthalpy of dry air at temperature t, kJ/kg hg = enthalpy of water vapor3 at temperature t, kJ/kg hfg = latent heat of vaporization at 0oC, kJ/kg The unit of h is kJ/kg of dry air. Substituting the approximate values of c p and hg, we obtain:

Humid specific heat: From the equation for enthalpy of moist air, the humid specific heat of moist air can be written as: Though the water vapor in moist air is likely to be superheated, no appreciable error results if we assume it to be saturated. This is because of the fact that the constant temperature lines in the superheated region on a Mollier chart (h vs s) are almost horizontal

where cpm = humid specific heat, kJ/kg.K cp = specific heat of dry air, kJ/kg.K cpw = specific heat of water vapor, kJ/kg = humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/kg of dry air Since the second term in the above equation (.cpw) is very small compared to the first term, for all practical purposes, the humid specific heat of moist air, cpm can be taken as 1.0216 kJ/kg dry air.K Example: The enthalpy of humid air at 25oC with specific moisture content = 0.0203 kg/kg, can be calculated as: h = (1.006 kJ/kgoC) (25oC) + (0.0203 kg/kg) [(1.84 kJ/kgoC) (25oC) + (2,502 kJ/kg)] = (25.15 kJ/kg) + (0.93 kJ/kg) + (50.79 kJ/kg) = 76.87 (kJ/kg) Specific volume v : The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters of moist air per kilogram of dry air. From perfect gas equation since the volumes occupied by the individual substances are the same, the specific volume is also equal to the number of cubic meters of dry air per kilogram of dry air, i.e.,

From the chart, one can read the following properties of humid air: Moisture content (g), or absolute humidity () Relative humidity (rh or RH) Dry-bulb (DB) and Dew-point (DP) temperatures. Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) Specific volume (v) and Enthalpy of air (h).

Psychrometric Processes Common processes: Sensible cooling / sensible heating Cooling and dehumidification / heating and humidification Humidification / dehumidification Evaporative cooling / chemical dehydration Typical devices: Cooling/heating coils Humidifiers / dehumifiers Basic psychrometric processes

Process 0-1: Sensible heating Process 0-2: Sensible cooling Process 0-3:Humidifying Process 0-4: Dehumidifying Process 0-5: Heating and humidifying Process 0-6: Cooling and dehumidifying Process 0-7: Cooling and humidifying Process 0-8: Heating and dehumidifying Psychrometric processes

Cooling and dehumidification

Cooling and dehumidification

Types of apparatus used in A/C systems: Sensible heating coils - Cooling coils - Humidifiers - Water spray types Steam humidifier - Room psychrometric process - Mixing air streams Calculations: 1- Sensible heating. During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its temperature decreases as it flows over a cooling coil. For moisture content to remain constant, the surface of the cooling coil should be dry and its surface temperature should be greater than the dew point temperature of air. The amount of heat transfer to the air is qs = ( hout hin) kJ/kg or Qs = ma ( hout hin) or = (hout hin) = kJ

cp,m ( Tout-Tin) kW

where c pmis the humid specific heat (1.0216 kJ/kg dry air) and ma is the mass flow rate of dry air. Sensible cooling: During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant and its temperature increases as it flows over a heating coil. The amount of heat transfer from the air is qs = ( hin hout) kJ/kg or Qs = ma ( hin hout) or
2-

kJ kW

(hin hout) =

cp,m ( Tin-Tout)

For humidification or dehumidifaction of air : Increasing or decreasing moisture content in air (adding water or steam to air). For humidifying, the amount of moisture the air gained is = (out in) kgw/kga or mw = ma (out in) kgw

For dehumidifying, the amount of moisture the air lost is = (in out) kgw/kga or mw = ma (in out) kgw

The amount of energy gained or lost from air due to humidifying or dehumidifying air is qH = . hfg kJ/kga or QH = ma. . hfg = ma cpm T kJ

where hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water

3-

Total cooling or heating loads qt = qs + ql or Qt = Qs+QL

45-

SHR (Sensible Heat Ratio) = Qs/Qt For cooling with dehumidifaction: cooling the air to the saturation line and some condensation will start Q = ma ( hout hin) - mwhw kJ

where mw and hw are the mass and enthalpy of the liquid water present at the end of the process (this water separates out from the vapour mixture as condensate, and so is not represented on the chart, but must be considered in the any mass or energy balance). The mass balance also gives main = maout + mw or mw = ma(in out) From energy and mass balance Q = ma [( hout hin) (out in) hw ] Adiabatic humidification (or evaporative cooling) If water is evaporated into the air-water vapour mixture without any heat addition or removal (i.e. adiabatically), the heat required to evaporate the water is taken from the vapour mixture. The DBT is therefore reduced whilst the state point moves along a line of constant wet bulb temperature (WBT). consider a stream of air-water vapour mixture into which a water spray evaporates,

From the SFEE, 0 = ma ( hout hin) + mwhw since the mass of water is conserved, mw = ma(out in) 6- Mixing of air streams:

Mixing of air streams at different states is commonly encountered in many processes, including in air conditioning. Depending upon the state of the individual streams, the mixing process can take place with or without condensation of moisture.

Adiabatic dehumidification If the air-water vapour mixture is passed through a chemical sorbent material (e.g. a silica gel), some of the moisture is removed and the latent heat of evaporation is released. Thus, the DBT increases alon-g a line of constant WBT if this process is adiabatic. Total cooling or heating energy and loads:

Qt = Qs + QL = ma(ha h2) + ma(h1 ha)

kJ

Or kJ Questions and answers: 1. Which of the following statements are TRUE? a) During sensible cooling of air, both dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures decrease b) During sensible cooling of air, dry bulb temperature decreases but wet bulb temperature remains constant c) During sensible cooling of air, dry and wet bulb temperatures decrease but dew point temperature remains constant d) During sensible cooling of air, dry bulb, wet bulb and dew point temperatures decrease Problems: Ans.: a) and c) 2. Which of the following statements are TRUE? a) The sensible heat factor for a sensible heating process is 1.0 b) The sensible heat factor for a sensible cooling process is 0.0 c) Sensible heat factor always lies between 0.0 and 1.0 d) Sensible heat factor is low for air conditioning plants operating in humid climates Ans.: a) and d) 4. Which of the following statements are TRUE? a) During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air decreases b) During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air increases c) During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air remains constant d) During cooling and humidification process, the enthalpy of air may increase, decrease or remain constant depending upon the temperature of the wet surface Ans.: d) 5. An air stream at a flow rate of 1 kg/s and a DBT of 30oC mixes adiabatically with another air stream flowing with a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s and at a DBT of 15oC. Assuming no condensation to take place, the temperature of the mixture is approximately equal to: a) 20oC b) 22.5oC c) 25oC d) Cannot be found Ans.: a) 7. Which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted surface temperature, then there is no sensible heat transfer between air and the wetted surface b) When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted surface temperature, then there is no latent heat transfer between air and the wetted surface c) When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted surface temperature, then there is no net heat transfer between air and the wetted surface d) When the enthalpy of air is equal to the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted surface temperature, then the wet bulb temperature of air remains constant Ans.: c) and d) 8. What is the required wattage of an electrical heater that heats 0.1 m/s of air from 15oC and 80% RH to 55oC? The barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa. Solution: Air undergoes sensible heating as it flows through the electrical heater From energy balance, the required heater wattage (W) is given by: W = ma(hehi) (Va/a).cpm(TeTi) Where V ais the volumetric flow rate of air in m3/s and a is the specific volume of dry air. T eand Ti are the exit and inlet temps of air and cp m is the average specific heat of moist air (1021.6J/kg.K). Using perfect gas model, the specific volume of dry air is found to be: a = (Ra.T/Pa) = (Ra.T/( Pt Pv)) o At 15 C and 80% RH, the vapour pressure pv is found to be 1.364 kPa using psychrometric chart or equations. Substituting the values of Ra, T, p tand pv in the equation for specific volume, we find the value of specific volume to be 0.8274 m3/kg Heater wattage, W (Va/a).cpm(TeTi)=(0.1/0.8274)x1021.6(55-15) = 4938.8 W 9. 0.2 kg/s of moist air at 45oC (DBT) and 10% RH is mixed with 0.3 kg/s of moist air at 25oC and a humidity ratio of 0.018 kgw/kgda in an adiabatic mixing chamber. After mixing, the mixed air is heated to a final temperature of 40 oC using a heater. Find the temperature and relative humidity of air after mixing. Find the heat transfer rate in the heater and relative humidity of air at the exit of heater. Assume the barometric pressure to be 1 atm. Solution: Stream 1: mass flow rate, m1 = 0.2 kg/s; T 1= 45oC and RH = 10%.

Using psychrometric equations or psychrometric chart, the humidity ratio and enthalpy of stream 1 are found to be: 1= 0.006 kgw/kgda & h 1= 61.0 kJ/kgda Stream 2: mass flow rate, m2 = 0.3 kg/s; T 2= 45oC and 2= 0.018 kgw/kgda Using psychrometric equations or psychrometric chart, enthalpy of stream 2 is found to be: h 1= 71.0 kJ/kgda For the adiabatic mixing process, from mass balance:

From energy balance (assuming the specific heat of moist air to remain constant): From T 3and W3 , the relative humidity of air after mixing is found to be: RH3= 41.8% (ans.) For the sensible heating process in the heater: Qs = ma(hehi) ma.cpm(TeTi) = 0.5x1.0216(40-33) = 3.5756 kW (ans.) The relative humidity at the exit of heater is obtained from the values of DBT (40oC) and humidity ratio (0.0132 kgw/kgda) using psychrometric chart/equations. This is found to be: RH at 40oC and 0.0132 kgw/kgda=28.5 % 10. A cooling tower is used for cooling the condenser water of a refrigeration system having a heat rejection rate of 100 kW. In the cooling tower air enters at 35oC (DBT) and 24oC (WBT) and leaves the cooling tower at a DBT of 26 oC relative humidity of 95%. What is the required flow rate of air at the inlet to the cooling tower in m3/s. What is the amount of make-up water to be supplied? The temperature of make-up water is at 30oC, at which its enthalpy (hw) may be taken as 125.4 kJ/kg. Assume the barometric pressure to be 1 atm. Solution: At the inlet to cooling tower: DBT = 35oC and WBT = 24oC From psychrometric chart/equations the following values are obtained for the inlet: Humidity ratio, i = 0.01426 kgw/kgda Enthalpy, hi= 71.565 kJ/kgda Sp. volume, i= 0.89284 m3/kgda At the outlet to cooling tower: DBT = 26oC and RH = 95% From psychrometric chart/equations the following values are obtained for the outlet: Humidity ratio, o = 0.02025 kgw/kgda Enthalpy, h i= 77.588 kJ/kgda

From mass and energy balance across the cooling tower: Qc = ma{(hohi) (WoWi)hw} = 100 kW Substituting the values of enthalpy and humidity ratio at the inlet and outlet of cooling tower and enthalpy of make-up water in the above expression, we obtain: m a= 18.97 kg/s, hence, the volumetric flow rate, Vi = ma x i= 16.94 m3/s Amount of make-up water required mw is obtained from mass balance as: m w= ma(o - i) = 18.97(0.02025 0.01426) = 0.1136 kg/s = 113.6 grams/s 11. In an air conditioning system air at a flow rate of 2 kg/s enters the cooling coil at 25oC and 50% RH and leaves the cooling coil at 11oC and 90% RH. The apparatus dew point of the cooling coil is 7oC. Find a) The required cooling capacity of the coil, b) Sensible Heat Factor for the process. Assume the condensate water to leave the coil at ADP (hw = 29.26 kJ/kg). Solution: At the inlet to the cooling coil; T i= 25oC and RH = 50% At the outlet of the cooling coil; T o= 11oC and RH = 90% From psychrometric chart; o= 0.00734 kgw/kgda and h o= 29.496 kJ/kgda a) From mass balance across the cooling coil, the condensate rate, mw is: mw = ma(Wi Wo) = 2.0(0.00988 0.00734) = 0.00508 kg/s From energy balance across the cooling tower, the required capacity of the cooling coil, Qc is given by:; Q c= ma(hi h o) mw.hw= 2.0(50.155 29.496) 0.00508 x 29.26 = 41.17 kW (ans.) b) The sensible heat transfer rate, Qs is given by: Qs = macpm(Ti To) = 2.0 x 1.0216 x (25 11) = 28.605 kW The latent heat transfer rate, Ql is given by: Qs = mahfg(Wi Wo) = 2.0 x 2501.0 x (0.00988 0.00734) = 12.705 kW1 The Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) is given by: SHF = Q/(Q + Q) = 28.605/(28.605 + 12.705) = 0.692 From psychrometric chart; = 0.00988 kgw/kgda and h i = 50.155 kJ/kgda

6-An auditorium having a volume of 28316 m3 contains air at 40 0C, 1 atm, and a humidity ratio of 0.01 kgwv/kgda. Determine (a) the relative humidity, (b) the dew point temperature, and (c) the mass of water vapor contained in the room.

7-Moist air at 30 0C, 2 bar , 50% relative humidity enters a heat exchanger operating at steady state with a mass flow rate of 600 kg/h and is cooled at essentially constant pressure to 20 0C. Neglect kinetic and potential energy effects, determine the rate of heat transfer from the moist air. (-6055.6 kJ/h). 7-Saturated air leaving the cooling coil section of an air-conditioning system at 14 0C at a rate of 50 m3/ min is mixed adiabatically with the outside air at 32 0C and 60% relative humidity at rate of 20 m3/min. Assuming that the mixing process occurs at pressure of 1 atm, determine the specific humidity, the relative humidity, the dry-bulb temperature, and the volume flow rate of the mixture. 8-An air-conditioning system is to take in outdoor air at 10 0C and 30% relative humidity at a steady rate of 45 m3/min. and to condition it to 25 0C and 60% relative humidity. The outdoor air is first heated to 22 0C in the heating section. Assuming the entire process takes place at a pressure of 100 kPa, determine (a) the rate of heat supply in the heating section and (b) the mass flow rate of the steam required in the humidifying section. 9-Air enters air conditioner at 1 atm, 32 0C, and 70% relative humidity at a rate of 8 m3/min, and it leaves as saturated air 12 0C. Part of the moisture in the air that condenses during the process is also removed at 12 0C. Determine the rates of heat and moisture removal from the air.