: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

REFRIGERATION CYCLES

1
 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration:
Is a process of reducing and maintaining the temperature
of a system below the temperature of its surroundings.

Unit of Refrigeration / Cooling Capacity:

The refrigerating effect or the cooling capacity is
expressed in terms of ‘ton’ of refrigeration, which is
abbreviated as TR or TOR.
1 Ton of Refrigeration (TR):
Is defined as the amount of refrigerating effect produced
by the melting of 1 ton (1000kgs) of ice at a constant
temperature (00C) in 24 hours.
2
Value of 1TR (1TOR):
Consider 1 ton (1000 kgs) of ice at 00C.
Amount of heat required to melt 1kg of ice at 00C, that is, latent heat
of ice: hfg = 335 kJ/kg
For 1000 kgs of ice, heat required
= 1000 x 335 = 335 x 103 kJ
In 24 hours, rate of heat required,
335  103
1TR   232.6 kJ / min  3.88 kW
24  60
[For all practical purposes, 1TR is taken as:
210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW]

3
Performance of a refrigerator:
The performance of a refrigerator is expressed by a
term, ‘Coefficient of Performance’, abbreviated as
COP.
The COP is defined as “the ratio of amount of heat
extracted (or absorbed) in the refrigerator to the
work done on the refrigerant”.
q
COP 
w
Where q = Amount of heat extracted or absorbed
and, w = Work done on the refrigerant.

4
 Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Refrigerator and Heat Pump are
essentially the same devices; they
differ in their objectives only.

The objective of a refrigerator is to

remove heat (QL) from the cold
medium; the objective of a heat pump
is to supply heat (QH) to a warm
medium.

5
The Reversed Carnot Cycle

Schematic Diagram T-s Diagram

6
 The Reversed Carnot Cycle

QL TL
COPR ,Carnot  
QH  QL TH  TL
1
 COPR ,Carnot 
TH TL  1

7
The Ideal Vapour Compression Cycle

T-s Diagram
Schematic Diagram

8
The Ideal Vapour Compression Cycle

p-h diagram
9
 The Ideal Vapour Compression Cycle

1-2: Isentropic Compression in a Compressor

2-3: Constant-Pressure Heat Rejection in a Condenser
3-4: Throttling in an Expansion Device
4-1: Constant-Pressure Heat Absorption in an Evaporator
Process1-2: Isentropic Compression in a Compressor
In an ideal simple vapour refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant
enters the compressor at state 1, as saturated vapour and is
compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The
temperature of the refrigerant increases during this process to
well above the temperature of the surrounding medium.

10
Process 2-3: Constant-Pressure Heat Rejection in a
Condenser
The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated
vapour at state 2 and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a
result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The temperature of
the refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the
surroundings.

Process 3-4: Throttling in an Expansion Device

The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the
evaporator pressure by passing it through an expansion valve
or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops
below the temperature of the refrigerated space during this
process. 11
Process 4-1: Constant-Pressure Heat Absorption in an
Evaporator
The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-
quality saturated mixture, and it completely evaporates
by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The
refrigerant leaves the evaporator as saturated vapour
and re-enters the compressor, completing the cycle.

12
Impracticability of Carnot Refrigeration
• Heat transfer at Evaporator and Condenser (from
refrigerated space to the atmosphere) at constant
temperature.
• But in all heat transfer must be same temperature difference
for heat transfer to occur
• Here Source and Sink temperature T1 and T2 changed to
T1+∆T1 and T2+∆T2. This enlarge temperature difference
reduces the COP of cycle.

13
 In a household refrigerator, the
tubes in the freezer
compartment where heat is
absorbed by the refrigerant
serves as the evaporator. The
coils behind the refrigerator,
where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air, serves as the
condenser.

An Ordinary Household Refrigerator

14
The COP of Ideal Vapour Compression Cycle
All four components associated with vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle are steady flow devices
and hence, all the four processes can be analysed as
steady flow processes.

The kinetic and potential energy changes of the

refrigerant are usually small relative to the work and
heat transfer terms, and therefore can be neglected.

15
Then, steady flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis
is reduced to
qin  qout   win  wout   he  hi
The condenser and the evaporator do not involve any
work, and the compressor work is adiabatic.
Then, COP of refrigerator is given by
qL h1  h4
COP  
wnet ,in h2  h1
Where h1 = hg at Evaporator Pressure, and
h4 = h3 = hf at Condenser Pressure (in ideal cycle)
16
The Actual Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Cycle

T-s diagram

17
In the ideal cycle, the refrigerant leaves the evaporator
and enters the compressor as saturated vapour.
• In practice, it may not be possible to control the state of the
refrigerant so precisely. Instead, it is easier to slightly over-design the
system so that the refrigerant is superheated at the compressor inlet.
This ensures that the refrigerant is completely vapoursied when it
enters the compressor.
• Also, the line connecting the evaporator to the compressor is usually
very long; thus, the pressure drop caused by fluid friction and heat
transfer from the surroundings to the refrigerant can be very
significant.
• As a result, there is an increase in specific volume which increases
the input requirements to the compressor since steady flow work is
proportional to the specific volume.
18
 In the ideal cycle, the compression process is internally
reversible and adiabatic, and thus isentropic.
• The actual compression process involves frictional effects, which
increase the entropy, and heat transfer, which may increase or decrease
the entropy, depending on the direction.
• Therefore, the entropy of the refrigerant may increase (process 1-2) or
decrease (process 1-2’) during an actual compression process, depending
on which effects dominate.
• The compression process 1-2’ may be even more desirable than the
isentropic compression process since the specific volume of the refrigerant
and thus the work input requirement are smaller in this case.
• Therefore, the refrigerant should be cooled during the compression
process whenever it is practical and economical to do so.

19
In the ideal cycle, the refrigerant is assumed to leave the
condenser as saturated liquid at the compressor exit
pressure.
• In reality, it is unavoidable to have some pressure drop in the
condenser as well as in the lines connecting the condenser to the
compressor and to the throttling valve.
• Also, it is not easy to execute the condensation process with such
precision that the refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the end, and it is
undesirable to route the refrigerant to the throttling valve before the
refrigerant is completely condensed. Therefore, the refrigerant is
subcooled somewhat before it enters the throttling valve.
• As a result, there is an increase in specific volume which increases the
input requirements to the compressor since steady flow work is
proportional to the specific volume.
20
• However, since the refrigerant in this case enters the
evaporator with a lower enthalpy and thus can absorb more
heat from the refrigerated space.
• The throttling valve and the evaporator are usually located
very close to each other, so the pressure drop in the connecting
line is small.

21
Sub Cooling and Super heating

22
Sub Cooling
• In ideal cycle it is seen that throttling starts at saturated
liquid line.
• But in actual fluid leaving the condenser may not be
saturated liquid state, because of pressure losses involved.
• Hence fluid may enter throttling Valve in wet state
• This increases the specific volume and reduces the capacity
of throttling.
• Subcooling the refrigerant before entry to throttling Valve
results in higher refrigeration effect as shown in the T-S and
P-h diagram.

23
Super Heating
• Ideal cycle refrigerant enters compressor at dry and
saturated vapour state.
• In actual cycle due to pressure losses, refrigeration may
enter compressor at wet state.
• Hence compressor has to handled liquid particles, which
effects on compressor.
• Hence refrigerant is super heated before it enters the
compressor.

24
Power, Capacity and Volumetric efficiency
• Cooling effect of refrigerant depends on rate of circulation of
refrigerant
• Positive displacement compressor depends on speed of
rotation, displacement and Ƞvol.
==

1 TR = = = 233.33 kJ/min = 3.88 kW

Net refrigeration effect = -
=

25
Power, Capacity and Volumetric efficiency
• Cooling effect of refrigerant depends on rate of circulation of
refrigerant
• Positive displacement compressor depends on speed of
rotation, displacement and Ƞvol.
==

1 TR = = = 233.33 kJ/min = 3.88 kW

Net refrigeration effect = -
=

26
Super Heated
Entropy at 2,
Enthalpy at 2, = +

27
At condenser
• Heat gained by water = Heat lost in condenser
• =

Compressor Design
• Clearance ratio = =
• = 1 +C – C
• Volume flow rate =
• Net Stroke Volume =

28
 Numerical Problems
Problem No. 1:
A simple R-12 plant is to develop 5 tonnes of refrigeration. The
condenser and evaporator temperatures are to be 400C and -100C
respectively. Determine (i) the refrigerant flow rate in kg/s (ii) the
volume flow rate handled by the compressor in m3/s (iii) the
compressor discharge temperature (iv) the pressure ratio (v) the heat
rejected by the condenser in kW (vi) the flash gas percentage after
throttling (vii) COP and (viii) the power required to drive the
compressor. Assume cp of superheated vapour as 0.5 kJ/kgK.

29
Data Given:
Simple VCR Plant: x1 = 1 (dry saturated)
Capacity of Plant: Q = 5 x 3.5 = 17.5 kW
Condenser Temperature: T3 = T = 400C
Evaporator Temperature: T1 = T4 = -100C
Specific heat of superheated vapour: cp = 0.5 kJ/kgK
To Determine:
(i) Refrigerant flow rate in kg/s
(ii) Volume flow rate handled by the compressor in m3/s
(iii) Compressor discharge temperature
(iv) Pressure ratio
(v) Heat rejected by the condenser in kW
(vi) Flash gas percentage after throttling
(vii) COP
(viii) Power required to drive the compressor

30
Solution:
Properties of R-12 (From Thermodynamic Data Hand Book):
Specific Specific
Enthalpy Entropy Heat
Volume
ts p (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK) (kJ/kgK)
(m3/kg)
(0C) (bar)
Vapour Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour Vapour

26.85
- 10 2.191 0.076646 183.058 0.1079 0.7014 ---
1
74.52
40 9.607 0.018171 203.051 0.2716 0.6820 0.50
7
T-s Diagram p-h Diagram

400C 9.607 bar

2.191 bar
-100C

31
Enthalpy at 1:
h1  hg @ 2.191bar  183.058 kJ / kg

Tsup at 2:

For isentropic process 1-2, entropy at 1 = entropy at 2

That is: s1  s2
Tsup
 s g @ 2.191bar  s g @ 9.607bar  c p ln
Ts @ 9.607bar
TSup
 0.7014  0.6820  0.5  ln
(40  273)
TSup  325.38K = 52.380C
32
Enthalpy at 2:
h2  hg @ 9.607bar  c p Tsup  Ts @ 9.607bar 
 203.051  0.5  (52.38  40)

 h2 209.24 kJ/kg

Enthalpy at 3:
h3  h f @ 9.607bar  74.527 kJ / kg

Enthalpy at 4:
Since the process 3-4 is isenthalpic, enthalpy at 4 = enthalpy at 3.
h4  h3  74.527 kJ / kg
33
Coefficient of Performance:
h1  h4 183.058  74.527
COP    4.14
h2  h1 209.24  183.058

Refrigerant Flow Rate in kg/s:

 Capacity 5  3 .5
m   0.16 kg / s
h1  h4 183.058  74.527

Power to Drive the Compressor:


P  mh2  h1   0.16  209.24  183.058  4.19 kW

Heat Rejected

in the Condenser in kW:
Q23  mh2  h3   0.16  209.24  74.527   21.55 kW
34
(Quality of Refrigerant, Dryness Fraction at 4):
For isenthalpic process 3-4, enthalpy at 4 = enthalpy at 3
That is: h4 = h3

 h f @ 2.191bar  x4 h fg @ 2.191bar  h f @ 9.607bar

 26.851  x4 (156.207)  74.527
x4  0.3052 (30.52%)

Volume Flow Rate:

  
V  m v1  m v g @ 2.19bar  0.16  0.076646  0.01226 m 3 / s

Compressor Discharge Temperature:

T2 = 52.380C
35
Problem No. 2:

[Cengel]

Properties of R134a (From Thermodynamics Data Hand Book):

p ts hf hg sf sg
(MPa) (0C) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK) (kJ/kgK)

0.14 -18.77 27.06 239.19 0.11080 0.94467

0.8 31.31 95.48 267.34 0.35408 0.91853

36
37
38
39
40
Problem No. 3:

The capacity of a refrigerator working between temperature

limits of -60C and 250C is 200 tonnes. Determine the mass of ice
produced per day from water at 250C. Also, determine the
power required to drive the unit assuming that the cycle
operates on reversed Carnot cycle. Take latent heat of ice as
335 kJ/kgK. [Model_QP_May_2017]
Data Given: To Determine:
Reversed Carnot cycle (i) Mass of ice
Capacity of Plant: Q = 200 x 3.5 = 700 kW produced per day
Condenser Temperature: T3 = T4 = 250C (ii) Power required
Evaporator Temperature: T1 = T2 = -60C to drive the unit
41
T-s Diagram

42
 Solution:

q = q1+q2
Where q1 = mcp(dt)

q2=hfg
Mass of ice = Q/q
Cop=TL/(TH-TL)
W=Q/COP

43
Problem No. 4:

A cold storage plant is required to store 20 tons of fish. The fish

is supplied at a temperature of 300C. The fish is stored in the
cold storage maintained at -80C. If the plant required to 75kW
to drive it, calculate the capacity of the plant. Assume the
following data: Specific heat of fish above and below the
freezing point = 2.93 kJ/kgK and 1.26 kJ/kgK respectively;
Freezing point of fish = -40C; Latent heat of fish = 235 kJ/kg;
Actual COP of plant = 30% of Carnot COP.
[Model QP_May_2017]

44
Data Given: To Determine:
Mass of fish: m = 20,000 kg (i) Capacity of the
Temperature of supplied fish: Plant: Q
T3 = T4 = 300C = 303 K (TH ) (ii) Time taken to
achieve cooling: t
Temperature of cold storage:
T1 = T2 = -80C = 265 K (TL )
Power to run the plant: W = 75 kW
Specific heat of fish above freezing point:
cp1 = 2.93 kJ/kgK
Specific heat of fish below freezing point:
cp2 = 1.26 kJ/kgK
Freezing point of fish: TF = -40C = 269 K
Latent heat of fish: hfg = 235 kJ/kg

45
Carnot COP:
TL 265
COPCarnot    6.97
TH  TL 303  265

Actual COP:
COPActual  0.3  6.97  2.09

Plant Capacity:
Q
COPActual   Q  W  COPActual
W
 Q  75  2.09  156.75 kW  44.79TR
46
 Total heat to be removed from fish: q
Heat to be removed from fish (from 300C to -40C): q1
q1  mc p1 TH  TF   20 103  2.93  303  269 
 q1  1992.4 10 kJ
3

Heat to be removed during freezing (at -40C): q2

q2  mh fg  20 10  235  4700 10 kJ
3 3

Heat to be removed from fish (from to -40C to -80C): q3

q3  mc p 2 TF  TL   20 103 1.26  269  265
 q3  100.8 10 kJ
3

Total heat to be removed from fish (from to 300C to -80C): q

q  q1  q2  q3  (1992.4  4700  100.8)  10 3

 q  6793.2  103 kJ 47
Time Required to Achieve Cooling:
q 6793,2  103
t   43,337.799 s
Q 156.75
 t  12.04 h

48
 Use of p-h Diagram
For Problem No. 1 which was Solved Using Tables:
A simple R-12 plant is to develop 5 tonnes of refrigeration. The condenser
and evaporator temperatures are to be 400C and -100C respectively.
Determine (i) the refrigerant flow rate in kg/s (ii) the volume flow rate
handled by the compressor in m3/s (iii) the compressor discharge
temperature (iv) the pressure ratio (v) the heat rejected by the condenser in
kW (vi) the flash gas percentage after throttling (vii) COP and (viii) the
power required to drive the compressor. Assume cp of superheated vapour
as 0.5 kJ/kgK.

49
p-h Chart: R12

50
 Use of p-h Diagram
For Problem No. 2 which was Solved Using Tables:

51
p-h Chart: R134a

52
 Gas Refrigeration Cycles

• Refrigeration can also be accomplished by means of a gas

cycle.
• In the gas cycle, an expander replaces the throttle valve of a
vapour compression system.
• Work output obtained from the expander is used as an aid in
compression, thus decreasing the net work input.
• The ideal gas refrigeration cycle is the same as the reversed
Brayton cycle (or Joule cycle).
• Since there is no phase change, the condenser and evaporator
are called as cooler and refrigerator, or simply heat exchangers.

53
 Flow and T-s Diagrams

Flow Diagram T-s Diagram

54
 Working of Gas Refrigeration Cycle
Process 1-2: The gas is compressed during this process
reversibly and isentropically.
Process 2-3: The high-pressure and high-temperature
gas at state 2 is then cooled at constant pressure by
rejecting heat to the surroundings.

Process 3-4: The gas then is expanded reversibly and

isentropically in a turbine, during which the gas
temperature drops to T4 .
Process 4-1: The cool gas absorbs heat from the
refrigerated space until its temperature rises to T1 .
55
 COP of Gas Refrigeration Cycle
qL qL
COP  
wnet ,in wC  wT

where qL  c p T1  T4 
wC  c p T2  T1 
wT  c p T3  T4 

56
 Advantages of Gas Refrigeration Cycle
Despite their relatively low COPs, the gas refrigeration
cycles two desirable characteristics:
• They involve simple, lighter components, which make
them suitable for aircraft cooling.
• They can incorporate regenerator, which makes them
suitable for liquefaction of gases and cryogenic
applications.

57
Numerical Problems on Air Refrigeration Cycle

Problem 1:

An ideal gas refrigeration cycle using air as the working

medium is to maintain a refrigerated space at -180C while
rejecting heat to the surrounding medium at 270C. The pressure
ratio of the compressor is 4. Determine (i) the maximum and
minimum temperatures in the cycle (ii) the coefficient of
performance, and (iii) the rate of refrigeration for the mass flow
rate of 0.05 kg/s [Cengel].

58
Data Given: T, 0C

Temperature of refrigerated space:

T1 = -18 + 273 = 255 K
Temperature of surrounding 27

medium: -18

T3 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Pressure ratio of compressor:
p2 / p1 = rp = 4
Mass flow rate of air: m = 0.05 kg/s T-s Diagram
To Determine:
(i) Maximum and Minimum Temperature of Cycle: T2 and T4
(ii) COP
(iii) Rate of Refrigeration: Q
59
SOLUTION:
For isentropic compression 1-2,

 rp    T2  T1 rp    255  4  1.4

T2  1  1 1.4 1

T1
T2  378.92 K (Maximum Temperature)

For isentropic expansion 3-4,

 rp    T4 
T3  1 T3 300
 1.41
rp   4 1.4
 1
T4

T4  201.89 K (Minimum Temperature)

60
Compressor Work:
wC  c p T2  T1   1 378.92  255  123.92kJ / kg
Turbine Work:
wT  c p T3  T3   1 300  201.89   98.11kJ / kg
Heat Extracted:
qL  c p T1  T4   1 255  201.89  53.11kJ / kg
COP  qL 53.11
  2.06
wC  wT 123.92  98.11
Rate of Refrigeration:
Q  mqL  0.05  53.11  2.66 kW
61
Problem 2:
Air refrigeration plant working on Bell Coleman cycle has
a pressure ratio of 5. The temperature of air at the
beginning of compression is – 70C and the air is cooled up
to 270C after compression. The compression and
expansion processes have efficiencies of 85% and 90%
respectively. Determine the refrigeration capacity and
COP of the cycle. Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, γ = 1.4 and air
flow rate = 1 kg/s. Show the cycle on T-s planes.

62
Data Given:
Air refrigeration
To Determine:
(Bell Coleman cycle)
(i) Refrigeration Capacity:
Pressure ratio of compressor:
Q
p2 / p1 = p3 / p4 = rp = 5
(ii) COP of the Cycle
Compressor Inlet Temperature:
T1 = -7 + 273 = 266 K
Turbine Inlet Temperature:
T3 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Compressor Efficiency: ηC = 0.85
Turbine Efficiency: ηT = 0.90
Specific Heat of Air: cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
γ = 1.4
T-s Diagram
Flow Rate of Air: m = 1 kg/s 63
For isentropic compression 1-2,

 rp    T2 s  T1 rp    266  5 1.4

T2 s  1  1 1.4 1

T1
 T2 s  420.81K
Compressor efficiency:
T2 s  T1 420.81  266
C   0.85   T2 a  448.12 K
T2 a  T1 T2 a  266

For isentropic expansion 3-4,

 rp    T4 s 
T3  1 T3 300
 1.41
rp   5 1.4
 1
T4 s

T4 s  189.63K
64
 Turbine efficiency:
T3  T4 a 300  T4 a
T   0.9 
T3  T4 s 300  189.63
T4 a  200.66 K

Coefficient of Performance:
T1  T4 a 266  200.66
COP  
   
T2 a  T1  T3  T4 a 448.12  266  300  200.66
 COP  0.789

Refrigeration Capacity:
 
Q  mc p T1  T4 a  1 1.005  266  200.66   65.67 kW
65.67
Q   18.76TR
3.5
65
Problem 3:
A closed cycle refrigeration system of 10TR works
between 4bar and 16bar. The air enters the compressor
at 50C and into the expansion cylinder at 200C.
Assuming that unit runs at 300 rpm, determine (i)
power required to run the unit (ii) bore of the
compressor (iii) capacity of compressor and (iv) mass of
ice at 00C produced per day. The compressor and
expander are double acting and stroke for each is
30cm. [Model_QP_May_2017]

66
Data Given: To Determine:
Closed Cycle Air refrigeration
(i) Power required to run
(Bell Coleman/Reversed Brayton cycle)
Refrigeration Capacity: the unit: W
Q = 10 TR = 10 x 3.5 = 35 kW (ii) Bore of the
Pressure at Compressor Inlet: Compressor: dc
p1 = p4 = 4 bar
Pressure at Compressor Inlet: (iii) Capacity of the
p2 = p3 = 16 bar Compressor: V1
Temperature at Compressor Inlet: (iv) Mass of ice at 00C
T1 = 5 + 273 = 278 K
Temperature at Expander Inlet :
produced per day.
T3 = 20 + 273 = 293 K
Speed of the Unit: N = 300 rpm
Compressor and Expander:
Double Acting
Stroke of Compressor and Expander:
L = 0.3 m
67
 For isentropic compression 1-2,
 1
T2  p2    p2  1.4 1 T, C
0

    T2  T1    278  4  1.4
T1  p1   p1 
 T2  413.1K

20

For isentropic
 1
expansion 3-4, 5

T3  p3   T3 293
    T4   1
 1.4 1
T4  p4 
 p3   41.4
 
 p4 
T4  197.18 K

68
Compressor Work:
wC  c p T2  T1   1 413.1  278  135.1 kJ / kg
Turbine Work:
wT  c p T3  T4   1 293  197.18  95.82 kJ / kg
Heat Extracted:
qL  c p T1  T4   1 278  197.18  80.82 kJ / kg

COP:
qL 80.82
COP    2.06
wC  wT 135.1  95.82
69
 Power Required to Run the Unit: W
Q Q 35
COP   W  
W COP 2.06
W  16.99 kW

Heat Absorbed per kg of air: qL

qL  c p T1  T4   1.005  278  197.18  81.22 kJ / kg

Mass Flow Rate of Air: m

Q 35
m   0.4309 kg / s  25.86 kg / min
qL 81.22
70
Capacity of the Compressor
(Piston Displacement in one Stroke): V1

mRT1 25.86  287  278

V1    5 . 15 m 3
/ min
p1 4  10 5

5.15
Per revoluton : V1   0.0172 m 3
300
0.0172 3 3
Per stroke : V1   8.58 10 m
2
Bore of the Compressor: dC
 d C2 L   d C2  0.3
V1   8.58  10 3 
4 4
 d C  0.3315 m
71
Mass of Ice Produced per day at 00C :
Latent heat of ice, hfg = 335 kJ/kg

Mass of ice produced

Q 35
   0.1045 kg / s
h fg 335
Per day : m  0.1045  3600  24  9028.8 kg

72
Problem 3:

A refrigeration system receives air from cold chamber

at – 100C and compresses it from 1 to 7 bar with n = 1.2.
Then the air is cooled to a temperature of 60C above
the ambient temperature of 260C before it is expanded
in the expander where index of expansion is 1.3.
Determine (i) COP of the cycle (ii) Mass of air circulated
to produce 2 tons of ice per day at 00C from water at
200C (iii) Plant capacity.

73
Data Given:
Air refrigeration To Determine:
(Bell Coleman/Reversed Brayton cycle)
Temperature at Cold Chamber: (i) COP of the Cycle
T4 = -10 + 273 = 263 K (ii) Mass of Air
Pressure at Compressor Inlet:
p1 = p4 = 1 bar Circulated : mair
Pressure at Compressor Inlet: (iii) Plant Capacity :
p2 = p3 = 7 bar
Index of Compression: n1 = 1.2 Q
Temperature at Expander Inlet :
T3 = (26 + 6) = 32 + 273 = 305 K T-s Diagram
Index of Expansion: n2 = 1.3
Mass of Ice : m = 2000 kgs
Ice Temperature:
TIce = 0 + 273 = 273K
Water Temperature: 74

Tw = 20 + 273 = 293K
SOLUTION:
For polytropic compression 1-2p ,
n1 1 n1 1
T2 p  p2  n1  p2  n1
    T2 p  T1  
T1  p1   p1 

For polytropic expansion 3-4p ,

n2 1
T3  p3  n2 T3
    T4 p  n2 1
T4 p  p4 
 p3  n2
 
 p4 
75
Compressor Work:
n1  1
wC  R T2 p  T1 
n1
Turbine Work:
n2  1
wT  R T3  T4 p 
n2
Heat Extracted by air per kg:
qL  c p T1  T4 p 

COP:
qL
COP 
wC  wT
76
Heat Absorbed from Water at 200C to make it
to Ice at 00C: q

q1  c pw Tw  T f 
q2  h fg
q  q1  q2
For 2000 kg: Q  mq (Refrigeration Capacity)

Q
In terms of TR 
3.5
77
Mass of Air to be Circulated: m
Q
mair 
qL

78
 SELECTION OF A REFRIGERANT
The selection of a refrigerant depends on certain
thermodynamic, chemical and physical properties.

1. Thermodynamic properties:
(a) Evaporation and Condensing Pressure
- The pressure in the evaporator should be positive and a little
above the ambient pressure so that the atmospheric air and
moisture do not leak into the system.
-The pressure in the condenser should not be high so as to
necessitate heavy construction of heavy equipment and high
cost.

79
(b) Critical Pressure and Temperature
- Fluids have a better heat transfer rate at temperatures below
critical temperature. So the critical temperature should be as
high as possible. This would give a high COP.
- The critical pressure should be low so as to give low
condensing pressure.
(c) Freezing point
-The freezing point temperature should be as low as possible so
that the refrigerant can operate freely at higher tempreatures in
the cycle.

80
(d) Latent heat and Specific Heat
- A higher latent heat of vaporisation at the working pressure would permit
a greater amount of heat extraction in the evaporator.
- The specific heat of the liquid should be small so that less liquid flashes
into vapour during expansion and there is higher refrigerating effect.
(e) Liquid and Vapour Density
- Refrigerants must not have a high specific volume at evaporator
pressure so as to have smaller suction and discharge lines and the
displacement volumes.
(f) COP and kW per TR
- The refrigerant should have a high COP and low power input to
compressor per ton of refrigeration.

81
2. Chemical properties:
(a) Inflammability
- The refrigerant should not be inflammable and explosive as far as
possible.
(b) Toxicity
- Toxic refrigerants should not be used in domestic refrigerating systems
and comfort air conditioning.
(c) Solubility in Water
-Refrigerants should have poor affinity for water , since the presence of
moisture would lead to formation of ice and choking of the capillary tube.
(d) Action on Material of Construction
- Refrigerants must not react chemically or corrode materials of
construction.

82
3. Physical properties:
(a) Thermal Conductivity
- For better heat transfer rate, the refrigerant should have a
high value of thermal conductivity.
(b) Viscosity
- A low viscosity is desirable for low pumping power and high
heat transfer rate.
(c) Leak Tendency
-The tendency for leakage of the refrigerant should be low and
the detection of leak should be easy,

83
 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

As the name implies, absorption refrigeration systems involve

the absorption of a refrigerant by a transport medium.

The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the

ammonia-water system where ammonia (NH3) serves as the
refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport medium.
Other absorption refrigeration systems include water-lithium bromide
and water-lithium chloride systems, where water serves as the
refrigerant. These two systems are limited to applications such as
air-conditioning where the minimum temperature is above the
freezing point of water.
84
The absorption refrigeration system becomes
economically attractive when there is a source of
inexpensive thermal energy at a temperature of 100-
2000C.

Some examples of inexpensive thermal energy sources

include geothermal energy, solar energy, and waste
heat from cogeneration or process steam plants, and
even natural gas when it is available at a relatively low
price.

85
AMMONIA-WATER VAPOUR ABSORPTION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Flow Diagram
86
Explanation / Working :
Ammonia vapour leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber, where
it dissolves and reacts with water to form NH3-H2O. This is an
exothermic reaction; thus heat is released during this process. The
amount of NH3 that can be dissolved in H2O is inversely proportional to
the temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to cool the absorber to
maintain its temperature as low as possible, hence to maximize the
amount of NH3 dissolved in water.
The liquid NH3-H2O solution, which is rich in NH3, is then pumped to the
generator. Heat is transferred to the solution from a source to vapourize
some of the solution. The vapour, which is rich in NH3, passes through a
rectifier, which separates the water and returns it to the generator,
The high-pressure pure NH3 vapour then continues its journey through
the rest of the cycle. The hot NH3-H2O solution, which is weak in NH3,
then passes through a regenerator, where it transfers some heat to the
rich solution leaving the pump, and is throttled to the absorber pressure.
87
 ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATOR
• An Electrolux refrigerator works on three-fluid system.
• There is no circulation pump.
• The total pressure is the same throughout the system.
• The third fluid remains mainly in the evaporator, which reduces
the partial pressure of refrigerant to enable it to evaporate at low
pressure and hence low temperature.

88
 Ammonia-Water Vapor-Hydrogen
ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATOR
• The schematic flow diagram of an Electrolux refrigerator
working on NH3–H2O system with H as the third fluid is shown in
Figure. Liquid NH3 evaporates in the evaporator in the
presence of H2. Hydrogen is chosen because it is non-corrosive
and insoluble in water. Thus, a complete leak-proof silent
system is achieved.

89
Schematic Flow Diagram of Electrolux Refrigerator

90
Working:
• A thermosyphon bubble pump is used to lift the weak aqua solution
from the generator to the separator.
• The discharge tube from the generator is extended down below the
liquid level in the generator.
• The bubbles rise and carry slugs of weak NH 3 –H2O solution into the
separator.
• Two U-bend constrictions are provided as vapour-locks or liquid-seal
to prevent H from getting into the high side of the condenser.
• The partial pressure of H provides the pressure difference of NH 3
between the condenser and evaporator.

91
 STEAM JET REFRIGERATOR

Schematic Flow Diagram of Steam Jet Refrigerator

92
Working:
• A simple steam-jet refrigeration system is shown schematically
in Figure.
• Water at state 9 expands to 11 through the throttle valve into
the flash chiller.
• Due to flashing (evaporation) of some liquid, the remaining
water gets chilled to the desired temperature T .
•The pressure in the flash chamber is maintained at the
corresponding saturation temperature T .

93
• The chilled water at 7 is re-circulated after taking up the load in
the cooling coil. The amount of water vaporised is compensated
by make-up water at 6 entering through a throttle valve.
• Water vapour at 2 is compressed to 4 by the ejector driven by
motive steam at 1.
• The compressed water vapour at 4 is then concensed to 5 and
pumped back to the boiler.

94
THANK YOU

95