Tribology International 35 (2002) 449458 www.elsevier.

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Friction and wear of PTFE composites at cryogenic temperatures1

Received 3 December 2001; received in revised form 14 March 2002; accepted 20 March 2002

Abstract This paper presents investigations on the tribological behaviour of PTFE composites against steel at cryogenic temperatures. The results showed that the friction coefcient decreases with temperature down to 77 K, but did not follow a linear evolution further down to extreme low temperatures. It can be stated that the cryogenic environment has a signicant inuence on the tribological performance of the polymer composites. The effect of low temperatures was more clearly detected at low sliding speed, where friction heat is reduced. A change in wear mechanism from adhesive to abrasive was observed in this case. SEM and AFM analyses showed that the PTFE matrix composites investigated under these experimental conditions have transferred material onto the disc down to very low temperatures. Chemical analyses indicate the presence of iron uorides. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: PTFE composites; Cryogenic tribology; Transfer lm

1. Introduction New technologies lead to a growing interest in material investigations for low temperature applications, in particular polymers and composites as an alternative to metals. Good experiences were made thereby with polymers, particularly with PTFE and PTFE lled composites [1,2]. It is well known that the material properties of polymers are strongly temperature-dependent. Youngs modulus and hardness are much higher at low temperatures compared to room temperature [3,4], whereas the already low heat conductivity continues to decrease. A consequence of this is the change in wear mechanism of the polymers at low temperatures. While at ambient temperature adhesive wear dominates, abrasive wear is observed at low temperatures [1,5]. Tribological performances of polymers depend signicantly on the temperature at the friction contact. That applies also to very low temperature tribosystems, especially for polymers with low heat conductivity.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-30-8104-3540; fax: +49-308104-1817. E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Theiler). 1 Extended version of the paper presented at the 2nd World Tribology Congress, Vienna, 37 September 2001.

More recently, some tribological studies in cryogenic environment [69] showed that both friction and wear are reduced due to the change in adhesion and deformation characteristics of the polymer materials. However, it was stated that this trend is not linear down to extreme low temperatures, but strongly depends on the cooling medium [9]. At T=4.2 K in LHe, friction and wear increased compared to the values measured at T=77 K in LN2. Concerning chemical analyses, XPS studies of lled PTFE matrix materials at room temperature [1012] showed tribochemical reactions between the PTFE and the metal of the counterface as well as between PTFE and metallic llers. The same results were observed with EDX (Energy Dispersive X-ray analyses) at room temperature in helium gas [13]. Polymer decompositions and triboreactions were also found for PCTFE in LN2 [5]. The aim of this study is to investigate the tribological behaviour of polymer-composites at low temperatures, with special attention given to the elementary processes at the friction contact. This paper describes experiments carried out in parallel at room temperature and in cryogenic environments and analyses of the polymer transfer occurring during these tribological tests at different temperatures as well as in different media. Transfer lms and the surface of the pins were examined, and chemical surface analyses were performed.

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Table 1 Composition of the PTFE matrix composites PTFE matrix wt% CF 5 wt% Ekonol wt% bronze 10 20 30 10 15 X X X 20

2. Experiments 2.1. Materials The materials investigated here are two types of PTFE matrix composites chosen from experiments carried out at room temperature [14]. Table 1 presents the composition of these PTFE composites. Figure 1 shows the structural formula of the polymers. The processing of these PTFE compounds takes place via a sinter process at a temperature between 360C and 380C. The materials were delivered as compression-moulded cylinders, which were cut into pins (surface of contact 44 mm). To shorten the running-in period, samples were pre-worn with grinding paper (Grid 800) placed between the pin and the disc prior to the actual tribological tests. With this method the roughness of the pins before testing was always the same, and a better parallelism between the two mating surfaces was achieved. The counterface is a disc of steel 100Cr6, that has been polished (Ra=0.01 m) and cleaned with ethanol before use. 2.2. Tribometers Tribological tests were carried out with a pin-on-disc conguration in the tribometers CT2 and CT3 described in [15]. Both cryotribometers are thermally insulated by vacuum superinsulation and cooled directly by a bath of liquid cryogen (CT2) or by a heat exchanger (CT3). At room temperature in air (RT), in liquid nitrogen (LN2, T=77 K) and in liquid helium (LHe, T=4.2 K) the tribometer CT2 was used. The investigations at T=77 K in helium gas (He-gas) were carried out in CT3. The test parameters were: Normal load: FN=50 N (3.12 MPa) Sliding speed: v=1 m/s and 0.2 m/s Sliding distance: s=2000 m

During the tribological test, the frictional force was measured to determine the coefcient of friction. In this experiment, the weight loss of the pin could not be measured since the wear was too small after 2000 m. An attempt was made to estimate the linear wear of the composite after this short sliding period by measuring the displacement of the pin, using an inductive sensor in CT2. Measurements were carried out before and after the tests with a load of 50 N and when the temperature of the system has returned to RT. To avoid the measurement of the creep behaviour of the composite, a static experiment was carried out with the same applied load and for the same period of time. The displacements recorded were then deduced from the total displacement measured after the wear tests. Despite all of the precautions undertaken, the linear wear results obtained here should be taken with precaution. After the experiments transfer lms and the surface of the pins were examined with optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) as well as with Atom Force Microscopy (AFM). X-ray Photo Electron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Energy Dispersive X-ray analyses (EDX) were performed to examine the surface composition of the transfer lm and the chemical reactions between the PTFE matrix material and the steel counterface.

3. Results 3.1. Tribological tests 3.1.1. Friction measurement Figure 2 shows the coefcient of friction of two PTFE composites at RT in air, at T=77 K in He-gas and LN2 and at T=4.2 K in LHe, for the two sliding speeds v=1 m/s and v=0.2 m/s. The graphs clearly demonstrate the inuence of temperature but also of cooling properties of the inert environment on the results. The coefcient of friction of PTFE composites

Fig. 1.

Structural formula of PTFE and Ekonol.

Fig. 2. Coefcient of friction of PTFE matrix composites at RT, at T=77 K in He-gas and in LN2, and at T=4.2 K in LHe (FN=50 N; s=2000 m).

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decreases from room temperature to T=77 K, with a minimal value in LN2. However, this decrease is not linear down to extreme low temperature since at 4.2 K, the friction coefcient increases. In fact, the friction values are the same at T=77 K (He-gas) and at T=4.2 K (LHe) for both materials, at v=1 m/s. At a lower speed (v=0.2 m/s), the friction coefcient differs from the one observed at v=1 m/s, depending on the environment but also on the material (Fig. 2). It can be noticed that the coefcient of friction is lower at T=4.2 K in LHe than at T=77 K in He-gas. Figure 3 shows the friction coefcient of several PTFE matrix composites at RT and in LN2. The parameters chosen in this experiment are FN=50 N and v=0.2 m/s. Although the composition of the materials plays an important role at RT, the friction coefcient remains at 0.1 in LN2 for most of the composites. Whatever the percentage of llers and bres, the friction coefcient decreases about 70% to 80% compared to RT values. 3.2. Wear measurement Figure 4 shows the linear wear of these PTFE matrix composites measured at RT and in LN2, with FN=50 N and v=0.2 m/s. The graph clearly illustrates the good performance of the polymer composites at low temperatures, with low linear wear. Contrary to the friction coefcient, linear wear depends on the material composition. The material with 30 wt% bronze and 10 wt% CF gives the lowest wear at RT. The materials with 20 wt% Ekonol, however, have a very small linear wear in LN2, quite difcult to detect after 2000 m. (The mass loss calculated from these linear wear measurements would lie between 0.07 mg and 1.2 mg). Since the tests run only 2000 m, the wear rate in this experiment is higher than the one observed in [14] (at RT, after 72000 m).

Fig. 4. Linear wear of PTFE matrix composites at RT and in LN2 (FN=50 N; v=0.2 m/s; s=2000 m).

3.3. Analyses of the transfer lm 3.3.1. Topography Investigations of the transfer lm formed at RT in air, at T=77 K in He-gas and in LN2, as well as in LHe were carried out. For v=1 m/s, prole measurements and optical microscopy images show the important inuence of temperature as well as environment on the topography (Fig. 5). At room temperature in air, the transfer lm is clearly visible (Fig. 5(a)). It consists of a homogeneous lm, 200 nm to 300 nm thick, with some 0.5 m thick lumps. At T=77 K in He-gas, the transfer is inhomogeneous (Fig. 5(b)). The thin area consists of long PTFE lumps. In the centre, the transfer lm is thicker, up to 1.2 m. The polymer transfer is deformed (Fig. 6(a)). The experiment carried out in LN2 produces a much thinner transfer (Fig. 5(c)), that consists of scattered polymer particles. The average thickness is 100 nm. The transfer lm built up in LHe is thicker compared with the one formed in LN2 (Fig. 5(d)). The lm consists here of broad tracks, which are up to 1.5 m thick. The transfer lm is brittle and shows many small wear debris at the edge as well as in the centre of the lm (Fig. 6(b)). Similar topography of the discs were observed for the Ekonol lled PTFE composites (Fig. 7). For the experiments carried out at v=0.2 m/s, prole measurements (Fig. 8) indicate as well a clear inuence of temperature and environment. However, the topography of the disc is quite different from the one at v=1 m/s. Signicant abrasive scarves are produced in LN2 as well as in LHe (Fig. 9). 3.3.2. Chemical analyses of the transfer For a better understanding of the tribological behaviour of the polymer composite, XPS analyses of the transfer lm were carried out after the experiments. The objective was to examine possible chemical reactions between the PTFE matrix and the steel in the different cryogenic media. The spectra of the uorine peak F(1s)

Fig. 3. Coefcient of friction of PTFE matrix composites at RT and in LN2 (FN=50 N; v=0.2 m/s; s=2000 m).

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Fig. 5. Prole and optical microscopy images of polymer transfer on the disc at (a) RT in air, (b) T=77 K in He-gas, (c) T=77 K in LN2, (d) T=4.2 K in LHe (Bronze and CF lled PTFE against steel; FN=50 N; v=1.0 m/s; s=2000 m).

Fig. 6. SEM analysis of the polymer transfer (a) at T=77 K in He-gas, (b) at T=4.2 K in LHe (Bronze and CF lled PTFE against steel, FN=50 N; v=1.0 m/s; s=2000 m).

and carbon C(1s) of the polymer material as well as iron Fe(2p) of the counterface were determined at the surface of the transfer (Fig. 10). The F(1s) spectrum of the lm grown at room temperature in air, shows two peaks: one at 687.7 eV, characteristic of the uoride in PTFE, and another at 684 eV, which indicates the presence of a metal uoride. In the Fe(2p) spectrum two overlapping

peaks were noticed. The peak of the iron uoride is at the same position as the one of ferric oxide (711 eV). Since iron uoride (FeF2) was found by other authors [10,16], it is reasonable to deduce that iron uoride is also present in our experiment. Similar results were obtained for the lm grown at T=77 K in LN2. The F(1s) spectrum shows two peaks

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Fig. 7. SEM analysis of the polymer transfer (a) at RT in air, (b) at T=4.2 K in LHe (10wt% Ekonol and 15wt% CF lled PTFE against steel, FN=50 N; v=1.0 m/s; s=2000 m).

Fig. 8. Laser prolometry of the steel disc after tribological tests against bronze and CF lled PTFE at (a) T=77 K in He-gas, (b) T=77 K in LN2 and (c) T=4.2 K in LHe. (FN=50 N; v=0.2 m/s; s=2000 m).

at 688.6 eV (PTFE) and at 684.6 eV (metal uoride). The Fe(2p) spectrum however shows two peaks at 711 eV and at 714.7 eV, which indicate the presence of FeF2 or FeF3 (714.7 eV). As for the XPS analysis of the lm formed at T=4.2 K, the spectrum of F(1s) shows a larger percentage of the metal uoride (peak with 684.8 eV) corresponding to the smaller C(1s) peak of PTFE (292.3 eV). The Fe(2p) spectrum has a higher peak at 714.7 eV which suggests the presence of FeF3. 3.3.3. Surface analysis of the pins The bronze-lled PTFE composite pin was examined after the experiments. The topography was analysed with SEM and AFM. EDX was used for the analysis of the chemical components. Similar to the transfer lm analyses, a signicant inuence of both the temperature and the cooling properties of the medium on the morphology of the pins was observed. The surface of the pin tested at room temperature is at, bronze particles are clearly visible (Fig. 11(a)), which corresponds to the observations of other authors [17]. The PTFE matrix, which is softer than the bronze particles, is removed from the surface and forms a smooth transfer lm on the coun-

terface. Chemical analyses of the surface indicate the presence of PTFE, bronze and iron. After the experiments at T=77 K in He-gas, the surface of the pin is similar to the one formed at room temperature: at, the bronze particles are uncovered. The SEM images of the sample tested in LN2 (Fig. 11(b)) show that the bronze particles are partially covered with PTFE lumps, which are pulled out of the matrix. Since at T=77 K the hardness of the polymer is much higher than at room temperature, the wear process of the polymer matrix is slowed down. This corresponds with the observations described above regarding the very thin transfer lm and the scattered polymer particles on the counterface produced in LN2. EDX analyses of the pin surface revealed mainly PTFE and bronze elements. The surface of the polymer composite tested at T=4.2 K is characterised by some cracks and very small round particles (Fig. 11(c)). These are observed on the surface of the counterface of the bronze lled PTFE composite (Fig. 5(b)) as well as of the Ekonol lled PTFE in LHe. In the same way as for the bronze lled PTFE composite, surface analyses of the Ekonol lled PTFE composites were carried out. Figure 12 shows the SEM

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Fig. 9. AFM analysis of the steel disc after tribological tests against bronze and CF lled PTFE (FN=50 N; s=2000 m) at: (a) T=77 K in LN2 ; v=1.0 m/s, (b) T=77 K in LN2; v=0.2 m/s; (c) T=4.2 K in LHe; v=1.0 m/s, (d) T=4.2 K in LHe; v=0.2 m/s.

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Fig. 10. XPS analysis of the transfer lm grown on the disc at: (a) RT in air, (b) T=77 K in LN2, (c) T=4.2 K in LHe. C(1s), F(1s) and Fe(2p) spectra (Bronze and CF lled PTFE against steel disc; FN=50 N; v=1.0 m/s; s=2000 m).

Fig. 11. SEM analysis of bronze and CF lled PTFE composites after tribological tests at (a) RT in air, (b) T=77 K in LN2, (c) T=4.2 K in LHe (FN=50 N; v=1.0 m/s; s=2000 m).

Fig. 12. SEM analysis of PTFE composites with 10 wt% Ekonol and 15 wt% CF, after tribological tests at (a) RT in air and (b) T=77 K in LN2 (F=50 N, v=0.2 m/s, s=2000 m).

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analyses of a composite after room temperature and LN2 tests at v=0.2 m/s. It can be seen that the surface of the composite tested in LN2 is characterised by some cracks, which were not detected for the bronze lled composite in the same test conditions in LN2 (Fig. 13). 4. Discussion 4.1. Inuence of thermal properties of environments and materials As described in [8,9], the coefcient of friction of PTFE composites decreases from room temperature to T=77 K in LN2. This can be explained by the increased hardness of polymers at low temperature and a decrease in friction due to deformation. However, the temperature of the cryogen is not the signicant parameter to understand and explain the tribological behaviour of these compositesand generally speaking of materialsat low temperature. The determinant factor is the physicalespecially thermalproperties of the cryogen. A good example is given in our study with the friction results at T=77 K between He-gas and LN2. Although both experiments are carried out in a medium at T=77 K, the coolant LN2 has of course a better cooling efciency than the He-gas. Moreover, the decrease of friction with temperature of the cryogen is not observed down to extreme low temperature. Indeed, a higher coefcient of friction is measured at T=4.2 K compared with the one at T=77 K in LN2, especially for the experiments carried out at high sliding speed. This behaviour can not be explained with the bulk structure of PTFE, whose lowest transition temperature is at T=160 K, neither with the temperature dependence of its mechanical characteristics, because at T=4.2 K the hardness should be higher than at T=77 K according to [18]

Fig. 13. SEM analysis of bronze and CF lled PTFE composites after tribological tests in LN2 (F=50 N, v=0.2 m/s, s=2000 m).

Thermal properties of the cooling medium are in this case responsible for this increase. Since the frictional heat raises the temperature at the contact area, especially for polymers with low heat conductivity, the heat transfer to the environmental medium is a signicant factor to consider. As explained in [19], as soon as a relative motion occurs and generates frictional heat, the liquid in the contact area begins to evaporate, and bubbles appear. Thereby, by thermal conduction, convection and evaporation, the heat is extracted from the contact. This leads to an efcient cooling effect. During this bubble formation phase (nucleate boiling), the temperature difference between the contact area and environmental medium is relatively small because the evaporation requires a large amount of heat. With increasing friction, the size and number of bubbles increases largely until nally reaching a vapour lm at the contact area (lm boiling). Since the heat transfer to a gaseous environment is much less efcient than the one to a boiling liquid, the transition from nucleate to lm boiling is accompanied by a steep temperature rise which can amount to several hundred K. For free radiating heaters, the temperature increase as a function of the heat ux density can be taken from boiling curves [20]. The data from such curves cannot be transferred directly to the conditions in a frictional contact which represents a conned geometry and forced-ow conditions, but they may serve for a rough estimation of the temperature conditions in the contact zone. A direct measurement as well as a calculation of the actual temperature distribution in the contact zone are extremely complex and have not been carried out so far. The results of the friction measurements in Fig. 2 indicated the effect of the heat transfer in different environmental media. In He-gas and liquid helium, no differences in the coefcient of friction appear at high speed (v=1 m/s). The heat ux density in both cases is 60 W/cm2 for the bronze lled composite. Since for liquid helium the heat ux density at the onset of lm boiling is only 1 W/cm2, the contact area at 60 W/cm2 is far into the lm boiling regime with a corresponding T of approximately 500 K for a static free radiating heater [20]. In this case the entire contact is certainly surrounded by gas, which separates the hot contact zone from the surrounding cryogen liquid. That means that the heat transfer at the friction contact is similar for each test in He-environment (77 K, 4.2 K), and thus the same temperatures lead naturally to the same coefcients of friction. In liquid nitrogen a heat ux density of 30 W/cm2 was calculated, which is just above the transition to lm boiling for static free radiating heaters in LN2 [20]. Because the rotating disc continuously transports liquid and provides a cold surface area into the contact zone, it can be assumed that this transition is shifted to higher heat uxes and T is still within a range of 10 K. The

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low coefcient of friction and only small material transfer conrm this assumption. At v=0.2 m/s, the heat ux density for LN2 and LHe reach only 6 W/cm2. The coefcient of friction in LN2 and LHe are similar for the bronze lled composite. However, for the Ekonol lled PTFE, the coefcient of friction is higher in LHe as in LN2, but lower as in He-gas. The friction heat produced at 4.2 K is still high enough to reduce the cooling efciency of the LHe to some extent. This can be explained by the fact that this composite has a lower thermal conductivity than the bronze lled material. Hence, the tribological behaviour of the composite investigated in this experiment can be explained by the cooling efciency of the cryogen. The hydrodynamic effect has not been considered since the viscosity of the cryogens are too low to establish a hydrodynamic lm of sufcient thickness to separate the two surfaces [21]. However, a possible inuence of the cryogenic uid on the displacement of the wear particles from the sliding track can be considered. In this experiment, lots of small polymer debris were found on the surfaces of the pin and disc after testing in LHe, fewer after the experiment in LN2. The exact contribution of the cryogen to remove the particles from the track is quite difcult to estimate in this experiment. 4.2. Surface analyses and wear process The surface analyses of the discs show that PTFE matrix composites transfer down to very low temperatures. Although similar friction values were found in Hegas and LHe at v=1 m/s, surface analyses presented some differences (Fig. 5). In our investigations the transfer lm at T=4.2 K is characterised by small cracks and wear particles. Obviously the transfer lm formed during the test is affected by the low temperature, possibly after the test or between the passes. At v=0.2 m/s, the surface of the disc tested in LN2 and in LHe presented strong abrasive wear scarves. The fact that there are no or fewer deep scarves at v=1 m/s as at v=0.2 m/s at the surface of the disc, points out that the wear process is mainly adhesive in the rst case and abrasive in the latter case. Low speed reduces the heat generated at the friction contact. Due to the resulting lower temperature, the polymer hardness increases, which causes more abrasive wear. That corresponds with previous studies where adhesive wear was observed in [4] whereas abrasive wear was found in [1] for experiments running at very low speeds (0.006 m/s), in order to keep the friction temperature low, to make the very low-temperature characteristics of the material visible. 4.3. Chemical surface analyses A rst attempt to understand the tribological behaviour of PTFE composites in a cryogenic environment by

means of chemical analyses was presented in this study. The XPS results correspond with previous works carried out with PTFE composites at RT [8,16] which described chemical reactions between the uorine atom and the metal counterface. In this study, the presence of iron uoride was detected down to LHe. It was also observed that the percentage of the uor from PTFE decreases at the surface of the transfer in liquid helium and, respectively, the percentage of the metal uoride increases. This could be due to the fact that iron uorides build up at the steel surface within the rst few runs of the test. Subsequently PTFE transfers to the top of this triboreaction layer. Similar structured layers of the transfer lm were observed at room temperature by other workers [16,22]. At T=4.2 K the transfer lm is characterised by small cracks and wear debris, which could belong to the upper PTFE layer and to the iron uoride layer. In this study the relation between the presence of metal uorides and the tribological performance was not obvious. However, uoridation of metal surfaces with formation of metal uorides layers is used in recent space applications studies to improve the tribological performance of cryogenic turbo pump bearings [23].

5. Conclusion

This work presents investigations on the tribological behaviour of PTFE composites against steel at cryogenic temperatures. It can be stated that thermal properties of the cryogenic medium have a signicant inuence on the tribological performance of the polymer composites. The generation of a gaseous lm around the friction contact decreases signicantly the cooling ability of the environment. Therefore, the effect of the low temperatures on the material properties was more clearly detected at low sliding speed, with a change in wear mechanism from adhesive to abrasive. Chemical analyses show the presence of iron uorides down to 4.2 K. The XPS results suggested that these uorides lay directly at the surface of the disc and are covered by a layer of PTFE. No inuence of the metal uorides on the tribological performance could be determined here, but results from other works suggest we should pursue these investigations. Further studies will be carried out in particular at low speeds to evaluate the inuence of the cryogenic environment on the tribological behaviour of polymer composites. The complex contact conditions encountered during sliding in cryogen, due to the presence of liquid and gas, will receive special attention, and temperature measurement will be further investigated.

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Acknowledgements The experiments were executed by Mr O. Berndes and M. Heidrich. Surface analyses of the samples were carried out in the BAM laboratories VIII.11, VIII.12 and VIII.23. Materials samples were provided by the companies Norton and UPM GmbH. This work is subsidised by the Germany Research Association (DFG) under the project numbers Hu 791/2-1 and Fr 675/31-1.
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