Theories of communication

1. Micro-level theories:
1.1. Argumentation Theory
how people argue History and Orientation Argumentation exists from way before the 19th century, where the Aristotles logical theory is found first. This indicates that argumentation was an important factor already in society. Until the 1950s, the approach of argumentation was based on rhetoric and logic. In the United States debating and argumentation became an important subject on universities and colleges. Textbooks appeared on Principles of Argumentation (Pierce, 1895). In the 1960s and 1970s Perelman and Toulmin were the most influential writers on argumentation. Perelman tried to find a description of techniques of argumentation used by people to obtain the approval of others for their opinions. Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca called this new rhetoric. Toulmin, the other influential writer developed his theory (starting in 1950s) in order to explain how argumentation occurs in the natural process of an everyday argument. He called his theory the uses of argument. Argumentation theory cannot be seen as the theory for argumentation. Various authors have used the argumentation theory all in a slightly different way; it is not to say which version is the most developed. Core Assumptions and Statements Argumentation is a verbal and social activity of reason aimed at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial standpoint for the listener or reader, by putting forward a constellation of propositions intended to justify (or refute) the standpoint before a rational judge (Van Eemeren et al, 1996). Argumentation is a verbal activity, most often in an ordinary language. In argumentation people use words and sentences to argue, to state or to deny etc. Nonverbal communication is accompanied with verbal communication in argumentation and can play an important role. Furthermore, argumentation is a social activity, which in principle is directed to other people. Argumentation is also an activity of reason, when people put forward their arguments in argumentation they place their considerations within the realm of reason. Argumentation is always related to a standpoint. An opinion itself is not enough; arguments are needed when people differ on a standpoint. Finally, the goal of argumentation is to justify ones standpoint or to refute someone elses.

The version of Van Eemeren and Grootendorst of the argumentation theory, the pragma-dialectical theory, is currently most popular. They began to study argumentation as a means of resolving differences of opinion. Argumentation starts with four principles. 1) Externalization: Argumentation needs a standpoint and an opposition to the standpoint. Therefore, argumentation research concentrates on the externalizable commitments rather than the psychological elements of people. 2) Socialization: arguments are seen as an expression of peoples processes. Crucial is to validate the arguers position by arguments in a certain way. Two people try to obtain an agreement in argumentation; therefore argumentation is part of a social context rather than an individual context. 3) Functionalization: Argumentation has the general function of managing the resolution of disagreement. Studying of argumentation should concentrate on the function of argumentation in the verbal management of disagreement. 4) Dialectification: Argumentation is appropriate only when you are able to use arguments that are able to help you arguing against another person. For resolving differences a theory on argumentation should have a set of standards. The term dialectical procedure is mentioned as a depending element on efficient arguing on solving differences. Van Eemeren and Grootendorst identify various stages of argumentative dialogue. 1) Confrontation: Presentation of the problem, such as a debate question or a political disagreement. 2) Opening: Agreement on rules, such as for example, how evidence is to be presented, which sources of facts are to be used, how to handle divergent interpretations, determination of closing conditions. 3) Argumentation: Application of logical principles according to the agreed-upon rules. 4) Concluding: When closing conditions are met. These could be for example, a time limitation or the determination of an arbiter. Note that these stages are indispensable. Argumentation analysis of persuasive messages Schellens uses a typology which differentiates between restricted and unrestricted argumentation schemes. Restricted schemes are limited to a certain conclusion. The group restricted argumentation schemes can be divided into three different parts 1) Regularity-based argumentation (Schellens, 1985: 77102): used in support of a descriptive statement about the present, the past or the future. Argumentation is given for a proposition of a factual or descriptive nature on the basis of a regularly recurring empirical link. 2) Rule-based argumentation (Schellens, 1985: 115-151; see also Gottlieb 1968 on rule-guided reasoning: used in support of a normative statement about the value of a situation or process. Arguments are given for a statement of a normative nature 3) Pragmatic argumentation: leading to a statement about the desirability of intended behavior. A position on the desirability of a given action, behavior or measure is advocated on the basis of its advantages and/or disadvantages. (Schellens, 1985: 153-178; see also Walton 1996: 75-77).

In addition to these restricted argumentation schemes, Schellens also distinguishes three unrestricted forms; argumentation from authority, argumentation from example and argumentation from analogy. These schemas are not limited to a conclusion of a type, but have a wider application. Conceptual Model Toulmin uses a model of argumentation for his uses for argument. See: Toulmin, S. The Uses of Argument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958). Favorite Methods Observation, content/argument analysis. Scope and Application Argumentation theory is an interdisciplinary field which attracts attention from philosophers, logicians, linguists, legal scholars, speech communication theorists, etc. The theory is grounded in conversational, interpersonal communication, but also applies to group communication and written communication. De Jong & Schellens (2004) illustrate the possibilities of argumentation analysis in the context of public information. Example To be added. References Key publications
Toulmin, S. (1959). The uses of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Van Eemeren & Grootendorst (2004). A systematic theory of argumentation. The pragma-dialected approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eemeren, F.H. van, Grootendorst, R. & Snoeck Henkemans, F. et al (1996). Fundamentels of Argumentation Theory. A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Eemeren, F.H. van, R.Grootendorst, S.Jackson, & S.Jacobs. 1993. Reconstructing Argumentative Discourse. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P. Gross, Alan G. 1990. The Rhetoric of Science. Chicago: U of Chicago P. Habermas, Jrgen. 1984. The Theory of Communicative Action. Trans. Thomas McCarthy. Vol.1. Boston: Beacon.

Williams, David Cratis, and Michael David Hazen, eds. 1990. Argumentation Theory and the Rhetoric of Assent. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P. Alexy, R. (1989). A theory of legal argumentation: The theory of rational discourse as theory of legal justification (R. Adler & N. MacCormick, Trans.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Original German edition copyright 1978) Aarnio, A., Alexy, R. & Peczenik, A. (1981). The foundation of legal reasoning. Rechtstheorie 21,, 133-158, 257-279, 423-448. Eemeren, F.H. van, R. Grootendorst (1992). Argumentation, communication, and fallacies. A pragma-dialectical perspective. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum. Feteris, E.T. (1990). 'Conditions and rules for rational discussion in a legal process: A pragmadialectical perspective'. Argumentation and Advocacy. Journal of the American Forensic Association. Vol. 26, No. 3, p. 108-117. Feteris, E.T. (1993). 'Rationality in legal discussions: A pragma-dialectical perspective'. Informal Logic, Vol. XV, No. 3, p. 179-188. Kloosterhuis, H. (1994). 'Analysing analogy argumentation in judicial decisions'. In: F.H. van Eemeren and R. Grootendorst (eds.), Studies in pragma-dialectics. Amsterdam: Sic Sat, p. 238246. Peczenik, A. (1983). The basis of legal justification. Lund. Schellens, P.J. (1985). Redelijke argumenten. Een onderzoek naar normen voor kritische lezers. (Reasonable arguments. A study in criteria for critical reading.) Ph.D. Dissertation. Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht. Dordrecht: Foris. Gottlieb, G. (1968). The logic of choice. An investigation of the concepts of rule and rationality. London: Allen und Unwin. Perelman, Ch & Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. (1969). The new rhetoric. A treatise on argumentation. Notre Dame/ London: University of Notre Dame Press. Hastings, A.C. (1962). A reformulation of the modes of reasoning in argumentation. Ph.D. Dissertation. Northwestern University, Evanston, III. Freeley, A.J. (1976). Argumentation and debate. Rational decision making. (4th edition) Belmont, Calif.:Wadsworth. Eemeren, F.H. & Grootendorst, R. (1992). Argumentation, communication, and fallacies. A pragmadialectical perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Garssen, B. (2001). Argument Schemes. In F.H. van Eemeren (Ed.) Crucial concepts in argumentation theory. (pp. 81-99). Amsterdam University Press. See also Language Theories and Linguistics

1.2. Cognitive Dissonance theory

Attitude formation and change. History and Orientation Leon Festinger (1951) synthesized a set of studies to distill a theory about communications social influences. Cognitive dissonance enjoyed great popularity from the late 1950s through the mid-1970s. Theoretical problems and conflicting findings lead to temporary replacement by similar self theories in the early 1980s, but cognitive dissonance regained its place as the umbrella theory for selective exposure to communication by the late 1980s. Core Assumptions and Statements Cognitive dissonance is a communication theory adopted from social psychology. The title gives the concept: cognitive is thinking or the mind; and dissonance is inconsistency or conflict. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological conflict from holding two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously. Cognitive dissonance is a relatively straightforward social psychology theory that has enjoyed wide acceptance in a variety of disciplines including communication. The theory replaces previous conditioning or reinforcement theories by viewing individuals as more purposeful decision makers; they strive for balance in their beliefs. If presented with decisions or information that create dissonance, they use dissonance-reduction strategies tot regain equilibrium, especially if the dissonance affects their self-esteem. The theory suggests that 1) dissonance is psychologically uncomfortable enough to motivate people to achieve consonance, and 2) in a state of dissonance, people will avoid information and situations that might increase the dissonance. How dissonance arises is easy to imagine: It may be unavoidable in an information rich-society. How people deal with it is more difficult. Conceptual Model Not applicable. Favorite Methods Experiments. Scope and Application Dissonance theory applies to all situations involving attitude formation and change. This theory is able to manipulate people into certain behavior, by doing so these people will alter their attitudes themselves. It is especially relevant to decision-making and problem-solving.

Example Consider a driver who refuses to use a seat belt despite knowing that the law requires it, and it saves lives. Then a news report or a friends car incident stunts the scofflaw into facing reality. Dissonance may be reduced by 1) altering behavior start using a seat belt so the behavior is consonant with knowing that doing so is smart or 2) seeking information that is consonant with the behavior air bags are safer than seat belts. If the driver never faces a situation that threatens the decision not to use seat belts, then no dissonance-reduction action is likely because the impetus to reduce dissonance depends on the magnitude of the dissonance held. References Key publications
Aronson, E., Fried, C. & Stone, J. (1991). Overcoming denial and increasing the intention to use condoms through the induction of hypocrisy. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 1636-1638. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Festinger, L & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forces compliance, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 58 (2):203-210. Robert A. Wicklund & Gollwitzer, P.M. (1982). Symbolic selfcompletion. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; William B. Swann Jr. (1984). Quest for accuracy in person perception: A matter of pragmatics, Psychological Review 91 (4):454-477; Steele, C.M. (1988). The psychology of selfaffirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self, in Berkowitz, L ed. Advances in experimental social psychology 21. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 261-302; Vallacher, R,R. & Wegner, D.M. (1985). A theory of action identification. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a selfevaluation maintenance model of social behavior, in Berkowitz, ed, op. cit., pp.181-227; Scheier, M,F. & Carver, S,S. (1988). A model of behavioral self-regulation: Translating intention into action, in Berkowitz ed., Ibid., pp. 303-346; Higgins, E.T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer in Berkowitz, ed., Ibid., pp. 93-136; Ziva Kunda (1980). The case for motivated reasoning, Psychological Bulletin 108(3):480-498. Cotton, J.L. (1985). Cognitive dissonance in selective exposure, in Zillman, D & Bryant, J, eds. Selective exposure to communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, L, pp. 11-33. Mahaffy, A.K. (1996). Cognitive dissonance and its resolution: A study of lesbian Christians, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 35 (4):392-402. Dickerson, C.A., Thibodeau, E.A. & Miller, D. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation, Journal of Applied Social Psychology 22 (11): 841-854. See also Interpersonal Communication and Relations & Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer Behavior

1.3. Elaboration Likelihood Model

motivation and processing ability determine attitude change History and Orientation Petty and Cacioppo (1979) discovered, in contrast to social judgmentinvolvement theory, that high levels of involvement do not invariably decrease persuasion.

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: The ELM is based on the idea that attitudes are important because attitudes guide decisions and other behaviors. While attitudes can result from a number of things, persuasion is a primary source. The model features two routes of persuasive influence: central and peripheral. The ELM accounts for the differences in persuasive impact produced by arguments that contain ample information and cogent reasons as compared to messages that rely on simplistic associations of negative and positive attributes to some object, action or situation. The key variable in this process is involvement, the extent to which an individual is willing and able to think about the position advocated and its supporting materials. When people are motivated and able to think about the content of the message, elaboration is high. Elaboration involves cognitive processes such as evaluation, recall, critical judgment, and inferential judgment. When elaboration is high, the central persuasive route is likely to occur; conversely, the peripheral route is the likely result of low elaboration. Persuasion may also occur with low elaboration. The receiver is not guided by his or her assessment of the message, as in the case of the central route, but the receiver decides to follow a principle or a decision-rule which is derived from the persuasion situation.

Conceptual Model

Elaboration Likelihood Model Source: Petty, R.E., Kasmer, J., Haugtvedt, C. & Cacioppo, J. (1987)

Favorite Methods Reader-experiments. Questionnaires (about arguments used in a text, brand recall, source credibility etc.)

Scope and Application Advertisement-research (printed media, television etc.), psychological research. This theory is promising because it integrates an array of variables into a single explanation of persuasion. It addresses factors that explain why and when messages and self-motivated efforts are more or less likely to lead to attitude formation.

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Cacioppo, J.T. & Petty, R.E. (1979). Effects of message repetition and position on cognitive response, recall and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 97-109. Cacioppo, J.T., Harking, S.G., and Petty, R.E. (1981). Attitude, Cognitive Response and Behavior, Cognitive Responses in Persuasion (31-77). New Jersey: Hillsdale. Petty, R.E. & Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. New York: Academic Press. Petty, R.E., and Krosnick, J.A. (1995). Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. Petty, R.E. & Wegener, D.T. (1998). Attitude change. In Gilbert, D., Fiske, S. & Lindzey, G. (Eds.). The Handbook of Social Psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. See also Interpersonal Communication and Relations, Health Communication, Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer Behavior

1.4. Model of Text Comprehension

How people comprehend texts. History and Orientation A number of theories about reading exist in which different parts of the reading process are described: recognizing letters and words, syntactic parsing of sentences, understanding the meaning of words and sentences, incorporating the meaning of the text in other present knowledge about the same topic. One of the most influential theories is the theory of Kintsch and Van Dijk (Van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). This theory describes the complete reading process, from recognizing words until constructing a representation of the meaning of the text. The emphasis of the theory is on understanding the meaning of a text. Kintsch continued working on the theory. In 1988, it was extended with the so-called construction-integration model (Kintsch, 1988), followed by a completely updated

theory in 1998 (Kintsch, 1998). This theory is often used as a starting point for constructing own models and theories, which several authors have done. Core Assumptions and Statements When a reader reads a text, an "understanding" of the text is created in the reader's mind. The process of constructing a situation model is called the "comprehension process". Kintsch and van Dijk assume that readers of a text build three different mental representations of the text: a verbatim representation of the text, a semantic representation that describes the meaning of the text and a situational representation of the situation to which the text refers. The propositional representation consists initially of a list of propositions that are derived from the text. After having read a complete sentence, this list of propositions is transformed into a network of propositions. If the text is coherent, all nodes of the network are connected to each other. The situational representation is comparable with the mental models described by JohnsonLaird. Text comprehension can be improved by instruction that helps readers use specific comprehension strategies. Conceptual Model

Source: Chun, M. (1997). Research on text comprehension in multimedia environments. Language Learning & Technology 1 (1): 60-81. Favorite Methods

To be added. Scope and Application Text comprehension can be used for studying how people comprehend text in a second language with the help of multimodal instructional materials. Example An example of reading ability is vocabulary knowledge: there may be a causal connection between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. Another example is related to a cognitive aspect. A learner selects relevant information from what is presented and constructs mental representations of the text. This process is moderated by individual differences, such as prior knowledge, abilities, preferences, strategies and effective factors. References Key publications
Van Dijk, T. A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press. Kintsch, W. & Van Dijk, T.A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85 (5), 363-394. Kintsch, W. (1988). The use of knowledge in discourse processing: A construction-integration model. Psychological Review, 95, 163-182. Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Alderson, J. C. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem? In J. C. Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language (pp. 1-27). London: Longman. Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), The handbook of reading research (pp. 255-292). New York: Longman. Carrell, P. L. (1984b). Evidence of a formal schema in second language comprehension. Language Learning, 34, 87-113. Corbett, S. S., & Smith, F. (1984). Identifying student learning styles: Proceed with caution! The Modern Language Journal, 68, 212-221. Davis, J. N., & Bistodeau, L. (1993). How do L1 and L2 reading differ? Evidence from think aloud protocols. The Modern Language Journal, 77(4), 459-472.

Ekstrom, R. B., French, J. W., & Harman, H. H. (1976). Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Gardner, R. C., Day, J. B., & MacIntyre, P. D. (1992). Integrative motivation, induced anxiety, and language learning in a controlled environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 197214. Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities.The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 285-299. Mayer, R. E. (1984). Aids to text comprehension. Educational Psychologist, 19, 30-42. Schnotz, W. (1993). On the relation between dual coding and mental models in graphics comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 3, 247-249. Smith, F. (1979). Reading without nonsense. New York: Teachers College Press. Smith, F. (1982). Understanding reading. (3rd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Tang, G. (1992). The effect of graphic representation of knowledge structures on ESL reading comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 177-195. Teichert, H. U. (1996). A comparative study using illustrations, brainstorming, and questions as advance organizers in intermediate college German conversation classes. The Modern Language Journal, 80(4), 509-517. Reference on theory: Noordman, L.G.M., en Maes, A. A. (2000). Het verwerken van tekst. In: A.Braet (red.) Taalbeheersing als communicatiewetenschap (pp.29-60). Coutinho Bussum. See also Communication processes, Language Theories and Linguistics

1.5. Semiotics
interpretation of meaning History and Orientation Semiotics, translated as the science of signification, is often said to derive from two sources: F. de Saussure (Swiss-French, 1857-1913) and C.S. Peirce (AngloAmerican, 1839-1914). Some other researchers known for their work in semiotics are Noam Chomsky, Umberto Eco, R. Barthes and Jean Baudrillard.

Core Assumptions and Statements

Semiotics is the theory of the production and interpretation of meaning. It's basic principle is that meaning is made by the deployment of acts and objects which function as "signs" in relation to other signs. Systems of signs are constituted by the complex meaning-relations that can exist between one sign and another, primarily relations of contrast and superordination/subordination (e.g. class/member, whole/part). Signs are deployed in space and time to produce "texts", whose meanings are construed by the mutually contextualizing relations among their signs. There are two major traditions in European semiotics: F. de Saussure, semiology; and C.S. Peirce, semiotics. Saussure's approach was a generalization of formal, structuralist linguistics; Peirce's was an extension of reasoning and logic in the natural sciences. General Semiotics tends to be formalistic, abstracting signs from the contexts of use; Social Semiotics takes the meaning-making process, "semiosis", to be more fundamental than the system of meaning-relations among signs, which are considered only the resources to be deployed in making meaning. Multimedia semiotics is based on the principle that all meaning-making, because it is a material process as well as a semiotic practice, necessarily overflows the analytical boundaries between distinct, idealized semiotic resource systems such as language, gesture, depiction, action, etc. Every material act and sign can be, and usually is, construed in relation to more than one system of sign relations (e.g. a written word is both a linguistic sign and a visual orthographic one; a spoken word is also construed in relation to its non-linguistic acoustical qualities; an image is interpreted both visually and usually also linguistically; etc.). Therefore it becomes important to study how different sign-systems are physically and semiotically integrated in texts and multimedia productions of various kinds Conceptual Model Not applicable.

Favorite Methods To be added.

Scope and Application

Social semiotics examines semiotic practices, specific to a culture and community, for the making of various kinds of texts and meanings in various situational contexts and contexts of culturally meaningful activity. Social semiotics therefore makes no radical separation between theoretical and applied semiotics and is more closely associated with discourse analysis, multimedia analysis, educational research, cultural anthropology, political sociology, etc.

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Barthes, R. (1967). Elements of Semiology (trans. Annette Lavers & Colin Smith). London: Jonathan Cape. Baudrillard, J. & Poster, M. (1988). Selected Writings. Cambridge: Polity Press. Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Peirce, C. S. (1931-58). Collected Writings (8 Vols.). (Ed. Charles Hartshorne, Paul Weiss & Arthur W Burks). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Peters, J.M. (1987). In het teken van het beeld. Beknopte introductie tot de semiologie. In J. Bardoel & J. Bierhoff (Eds.), Informatie in Nederland, theorie, achtergronden. Groningen: WoltersNoordhoff. Saussure, F. de (1983). Course in General Linguistics (trans. Roy Harris). London: Duckworth. See Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer Behavior

1.6. Speech Act

understanding speakers intention (in Dutch: taalhandelingen) History and Orientation

Speech act theory is built on the foundation laid by Wittgenstein and Austin. John Searle is most often associated with the theory. Ludwig Wittgenstein began a line of thought called ordinary language philosophy. He taught that the meaning of language depends on its actual use. Language, as used in ordinary life, is a language game because it consists of rules. In other words, people follow rules to do things with the language.

Core Assumptions and Statements According to Searle, to understand language one must understand the speakers intention. Since language is intentional behavior, it should be treated like a form of action. Thus Searle refers to statements as speech acts. The speech act is the basic unit of language used to express meaning, an utterance that expresses an intention. Normally, the speech act is a sentence, but it can be a word or phrase as long as it follows the rules necessary to accomplish the intention. When one speaks, one performs an act. Speech is not just used to designate something, it actually does something. Speech act stresses the intent of the act as a whole. According to Searle, understanding the speakers intention is essential to capture the meaning. Without the speakers intention, it is impossible to understand the words as a speech act. There are four types of speech act: utterance acts, propositional acts (referring is a type of propositional act), illocutionary acts (promises, questions and commands) and perlocutionary acts. A perlocutionary act can be used to elicit some behavioral response from the listener. Searle believes that speakers perform acts by observing two types of rules: constitutive rules or definition rules (create or define new forms of behavior) and regulative or behavior rules (these rules govern types of behavior that already exist).

Conceptual Model Not applicable.

Favorite Methods Content and conversation analysis.

Scope and Application

Speech act theory has contributed to the rules perspective in communication because it provides a basis for examining what happens when speakers use different definition and behavior rules. By analyzing the rules used by each speaker, researchers can better understand why conversational misunderstandings have occurred.

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Searle, J.R. (1969). Speech Acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge: University Press. Mulligan, K. (1987), "Promisings and Other Social Acts: Their Constituents and Structure". In: Mulligan (ed.), Speech Act and Sachverhalt, 29-90. Smith, B. (1988), "Materials Towards a History of Speech Act Theory", in Eschbach, A. (ed.), Karl Bhler's Theory of Language. Amsterdam, 125-52. Crystal, D. (1985). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 2nd edition. New York: Basil Blackwell. Dore, J. (1975). Holophrases, speech acts and language universals. Journal of Child Language 2, 21-40, See also Interpersonal Communication and Relations, Language Theories and Linguistics.

1.7. Uncertainty Reduction Theory

reduction uncertainty in behavior History and Orientation Uncertainty reduction theory (URT) was initially presented as a series of axioms (universal truths which do not require proof and theorems (propositions assumed to be true) which describe the relationships between uncertainty and several communication factors. URT was developed to describe the interrelationships between seven important factors in any dyadic exchange: verbal communication, nonverbal expressiveness, information-seeking behavior, intimacy, reciprocity,

similarity, and liking. This theoretical perspective was originated by C.R. Berger and Calabrese in 1975; they drew on the work of Heider (1952).

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: Uncertainty is unpleasant and therefore motivational; people communicate to reduce it. Uncertainty reduction follows a pattern of developmental stages (entry, personal, exit). During the entry stage information about anothers sex, age, economic or social status, and other demographic information is obtained. Much of the interaction in this entry phase is controlled by communication rules and norms. When communicators begin to share attitudes, beliefs, values, and more personal data, the personal stage begins. During this phase, the communicators feel less constrained by rules and norms and tend to communicate more freely with each other. The third stage is the exit phase. During this phase, the communicators decide on future interaction plans. They may discuss or negotiate ways to allow the relationship to grow and continue. However, any particular conversation may be terminated and the end of the entry phase. This pattern is especially likely to occur during initial interaction, when people first meet or when new topics are introduced later in a relationship. Besides the stages in uncertainty reduction patterns makes Berger a distinction between three basic ways people seek information about another person: (1) Passive strategies - a person is being observed, either in situations where the other person is likely to be self-monitoring* as in a classroom, or where the other person is likely to act more naturally as in the stands at a football game. (2) Active strategies - we ask others about the person we're interested in or try to set up a situation where we can observe that person (e.g., taking the same class, sitting a table away at dinner). Once the situation is set up we sometime observe (a passive strategy) or talk with the person (an interactive strategy). (3) Interactive strategies - we communicate directly with the person. People seek to increase their ability to predict their partners and their own behavior in situations. One other factor which reduces uncertainty between communicators is the degree of similarity individuals perceive in each other (in background, attitudes and appearance). Statements: the axioms in URT follow the If then statements typical of the law-governed approach. For example: If uncertainty levels are high, the amount of verbal communication between strangers will decrease. *Self-monitoring is a behavior where we watch and strategically manipulate how we present ourselves to others.

Conceptual Model

Uncertainty Reduction Model Source: Heath & Bryant (1999)

Favorite Methods Observation.

Scope and Application Organizational communication, society. Uncertainty reduction theory also applies at the organizational and societal levels (risk society).

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Berger, C.R., & Bradac, J.J. (1982). Language and social knowledge: Uncertainty in interpersonal relations. London: Arnold.

Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. J. (1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Theory, 1, 99-112 Heath, R.L. & Bryant, J. (2000). Human Communication Theory and Research. Concept, Context and Challenges. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Berger, C. R., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1991). Uncertainty and communication. In B. Dervin & M. Voight (Eds.), Progress in communication sciences. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Emmers, T.M. & Canary, D. (1996 Spring). The Effect of Uncertainty Reducing Strategies on Young Couples Relational Repair and Intimacy, Communication Quarterly 44: 166-82. Berger, C.R. & Kellerman, N. Acquiring Social Information, in John Daly and John Wiemann, Strategic Interpersonal Communication, 1-31. Walid, A. & Lee, J.W. Balancing Instrumental and Identity Goals in Relationships: The Role of Request Directness and Request Persistence in the Selection of Sexual Resistance Strategies, Communication Monographs 67 (September 2000): 284-305. Brashers, D.E. (2000 March). Communication in the Management of Uncertainty: The Case of Persons Living with HIV or AIDS, Communication Monographs 67 (March 2000): 63-84. See also Interpersonal Communication and Relations, Organizational Communication, Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer Behavior

2. Meso-level theories: 2.1. Adaptive Structuration Theory

role of information technologies in organization change History and Orientation Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. This theory is formulated as the production and reproduction of the social systems through members use of rules and resources in interaction. DeSanctis and Poole adapted Giddens' theory to study the interaction of groups and organizations with information technology, and called it Adaptive Structuration Theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities. These perceptions can

vary widely across groups. These perceptions influence the way how technology is used and hence mediate its impact on group outcomes. Core Assumptions and Statements AST is a viable approach for studying the role of advanced information technologies in organization change. AST examines the change process from two vantage points 1) the types of structures that are provided by the advanced technologies and 2) the structures that actually emerge in human action as people interact with these technologies. 1. Structuration Theory, deals with the evolution and development of groups and organizations. 2. The theory views groups or organizations as systems with ("observable patterns of relationships and communicative interaction among people creating structures"). 3. Systems are produced by actions of people creating structures (sets of rules and resources). 4. Systems and structures exist in a dual relationship with each others such that they tend to produce and reproduce each other in an ongoing cycle. This is referred to as the "structuration process." 5. The structuration process can be very stable, or it can change substantial over time. 6. It is useful to consider groups and organizations from a structuration perspective because doing so: (a) helps one understand the relative balance in the deterministic influences and willful choices that reveal groups' unique identities; (b) makes clearer than other perspectives the evolutionary character of groups and organizations; and (c) suggests possibilities for how members may be able to exercise more influence than they otherwise think themselves capable of. Conceptual Model See Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, p. 132. Favorite Methods To be added. Scope and Application

The AST could be used to analyze the advent of various innovations such as the printed press, electricity, telegraph, mass transpirations, radio, telephone, TV, the Internet, etc., and show how the structures of these innovations penetrated the respective societies, influencing them, and how the social structures of those societies in turn influenced and modified innovations' original intent. In conclusion AST's appropriation process might be a good model to analyze the utilization and penetration of new media technologies in our society. Example In this example two groups are compared that used the Group Decision Support System (GDSS) for prioritizing projects for organizational investment. A written transcript and an audio tape produced qualitative summary. Also quantitative results were obtained which led to the following conclusions. Both groups had similar inputs to group interaction. The sources of structure and the groups internal system were essentially the same in each group, except that group 1 had a member who was forceful in attempting to direct others and was often met with resistance. Group 2 spent much more time than group 1 defining the meaning of the system features and how they should be used relative to the task at hand; also group 2 had relatively few disagreements about appropriation or unfaithful appropriation. In group 2 conflict was confined to critical work on differences rather than the escalated argument present in group 1. This example shows how the Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) can help to understand advanced technology in group interactions. Although the same technology was introduced to both groups, the effects were not consistent due to differences in each groups appropriation moves. References Key publications
Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, 121-147 Maznevski, M. L. & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging Space Over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and Effectiveness. Organization Science. 11, 473-492 Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1985). Group Decision-making as a structurational process. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 71, 74-102. Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1986). A structurational approach to theory-building in group decision-making research. In R. Y. Hirokawa & M. S. Poole (Eds.), Communication and group decision making (pp. 2437-264). Beverly Hills: Sage. Seibold, D. (1998). Jurors intuitive rules for deliberation: a structural approach to communication in jury decision making. Communication Monographs, 65, p. 287-307.

Anderson, R. & Ross, V. (1998). Questions of Communication: A practical introduction to theory (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martins Press, not in. Cragan, J. F., & Shields, D.C. (1998). Understanding communication theory: The communicative forces for human action. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 229-230. Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, p. 209210, & 224-233. Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 256. Infante, D. A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, p. 180 & 348-351. Littlejohn, S.W. (1999). Theories of human communication (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 319-322. West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2000). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, p. 209-223. Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, not in. J.M. Caroll (Ed.) Scenario-based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. Wiley, NY, 1995. W. Chin, A. Gopal, W. Salisbury. Advancing the theory of Adaptive Structuration: the development of a scale to measure faithfulness of Appropriation. Information Systems Research 8 (1997) 342367. G. DeSanctis, M.S. Poole. Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive Structuration Theory, Organization Science 5 (1994) 121-147. A. Giddens. The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984. A. Giddens. New rules of sociological method: a positive critique of interpretive sociologies, 2nd ed., Polity Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993. J. Greenbaum and M. Kyng (Eds). Design at Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J., 1991. P. Grefen, R. Wieringa. Subsystem Design Guidelines for Extensible General-Purpose Software. 3rd International Software Architecture Workshop (ISAW3); Orlando, Florida, 1998, 49-52. P. Grefen, K. Sikkel, R. Wieringa. Two Case Studies of Subsystem Design for Extensible GeneralPurpose Software. Report 98-14, Center for Telematics and Information Technology, Enschede, Twente. J.A. Hughes, D. Randall, D. Shapiro. Faltering from Ethnography to Design. Proc. ACM Conf. on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, 1992, 115-122.

C. Korunka, A. Weiss, & S. Zauchner. An interview study of 'continuous' implementations of information technology, Behaviour & information technology 16 (1997) 3-16. P.B. Kruchten. The 4+1 View Model of Architecture. IEEE Software, Nov. 1995, 42-50. V.L. ODay, D.G. Bobrow, M. Shirley. The Social-Technical Design Circle. ACM Conf. on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW96), Cambridge, Mass., 1996, 160-169. W.J. Orlikowski. Improvising Organizational Transformation Over Time: A Situated Change Perspective. Information Systems Research 7 (1996) 63-92. Dynamic Object Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) Reference Manual, Version 2.1 Quality Systems and Software ltd., Oxford, UK. L.A. Suchman. Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1987. A. Sutcliffe and S. Minocha. Linking Business Modelling to Socio-Technical System Design. CREWS-Report 98-43, Centre for HCI Design, City University, London. L. Tornatzky and M. Fleischer. The process of Technological Innovation. Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1992. See also Organizational Communication

2.2. Attraction-Selection-Attrition Framework

Understanding organizational behavior History and Orientation Schneider (1987) asserted that the people make the place and that organizational culture, climate and practices are determined by the people in the organization. This theory is closely related to psychology. This theory is part of the socialization process, whereby new members in organizations according tot the framework fit in a specificorganization. For over 100 years discussions are held on the influence of situational variables - such as groups, technology, structure, environment - on organizational behavior. Schneider argues that the psychologists have failed to incorporate people types into our theories of organizations. In 1995 the ASA Framework was updated. Schneider already mentioned that the person is particularly important in the organizational context. Schneider et al (1995) now added the dimension that the people are responsible for the structure, processes and culture of the organization. Core Assumptions and Statements

Statement: attributes of people, not the nature of external environment, or organizational technology, or organizational structure, are the fundamental determinants of organizational behavior (Schneider, 1987). The people are functions of an Attraction-Selection-Attrition cycle. Attraction: People are differentially attracted to careers as a function of their own interests and personality (Holland, 1985). Other signs of attraction are researched by Tom (1971) and Vroom (1966). They have stated that people search environments that fit by their personality and that people would like to obtain their outcomes by selecting a specific organization. Selection: Organizations select people who they think are compatible for many different kinds of jobs. In that way organizations end up choosing people who share many common personal attributes, although they may not share common competencies. Attrition: The opposite side of attraction. When people do not fit an environment they tend to leave it. When people leave the environment a more homogenous group stays than those were initially attracted to the organization. Implications of the model are 1) the difficulty of bringing about change in organizations: Organizations have great difficulty when trying to change, because they not contain people with the appropriate inclinations. When the environment changes an organization will not be aware and probably not be capable of changing. 2) the utility of personality and interest measures for understanding organizational behavior: It is difficult for an organization to apply these topics for individual employees, who all have different compatibilities. This model makes it clear that reaching conclusions for the best structure more information is needed on the kinds of people working in the organization. 3) the genesis of organizational climate and culture: climate and culture are not easily defined in an organization, most often they exist when people share a common set of assumptions, values and beliefs. 4) the importance of recruitment: on personnel selection is paid a lot of attention. Surprisingly, on personnel recruitment, in which way do we communicate on vacancies, is not paid much attention. 5) the need for person-based theories of leadership and job attitudes. The research on this area is depressing according to Schneider (1987). We believe that the attitudes of people are created by the conditions of the work place. Conceptual Model Not applicable. Favorite Methods Predominant qualitative, for example Q-Sort and Survey. For criticism see Edwards (1994) and Edwards and Parry (1993).

Scope and Application This model can be used for better understanding organizations. The ASA model is a critical model on the current situational theories of organizations. The ASA model can help analyzing common thoughts of organizations. Example Chatman (1989) developed a Q-sort technique with which individuals can reveal their personal values and through which incumbents already at work in organizations can reveal the values of the organization. They (OReilly et al., 1991) show that when the fit of personal values to organizational values to organizational values is high, employees are less likely to turnover. By inference it follows that if people who are fit are more likely to stay in an organization, then over time, the environment will become more homogeneous because similar people will stay in the organization and dissimilar ones will leave. Example from Schneider et al (1995), p 755-756. References Key publications
Schneider, B. (1987). The people make the place. Personnel Psychology, 40, 437-453. Schneider, B., Goldstein, H.W. & Smith, D.B. (1995). The ASA Framework: An Update. Personnel Psychology, 48, 747-779. Diener, E.L. & Emmons, R.A. (1984). Person X situation interactions: Choice of situations and congruence response models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 580-592. Locke, E.A. (ed.) (1986). Generalizing from laboratory to field settings. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Holland, J.L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice-Hall. Tom, V.R. (1971). The role of personality and organizational images in the recruiting process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 6, 573-592. Vroom, V.R. (1966). Organizational choice: A study of pre- and post-decision processes. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1, 212-226. Edwards, J. R. (1994). The study of congruence in organizational behavior research: Critique and proposed alternative. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 58, 683 - 689.

Edwards, J. R., & Parry, M. E. (1993). On the use of polynomial regression equations as an alternative to difference scores in organizational research. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 1577 - 1613. See also Organizational Communication & Public Relations, Marketing and Consumer Behavior.

2.3. Contingency Theories

influences of internal and external constraints in organizations History and Orientation To be added.

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: Wiio and Goldhaber (1993) concluded that differences in communication effectiveness are a function both of type of organization and composition of work force (age, sex, education, tenure). The communication process is influenced by many internal and external constraints from the organization and its subsystems. The constraints determine the status of the organization of the environmental suprasystem and the state of each subsystem. The communication process is thus contingent upon external and internal stimuli and upon the degree of freedom of states within the system allowed by the organizational constraints. Some internal contingencies are: structural contingencies, output, demographic, spatiotemporal and traditional contingencies. External contingencies are: economic, technological, legal, sociopoliticocultural and environmental contingencies. Persons interested in organizational communication should consider such questions as the following. What are the contingencies under which organizations communicate best when confronting their environment? Specifically, do different types of organizations have different communication needs? Do organizational internal contingencies (demographics such as age, sex, education, seniority, management level, and amount of communication training) affect communication needs? Are different demographics better predictors of communication need in types of organizations? Etc. Statement: Wiio stated In different organizational contingencies, different demographic variables showed significant relationships with communication variables. (p. 93). Examples of contingency theories are: Contingency theory of leadership

In contingency theory of leadership, the success of the leader is a function of various contingencies in the form of subordinate, task, and/or group variables. The effectiveness of a given pattern of leader behavior is contingent upon the demands imposed by the situation. These theories stress using different styles of leadership appropriate to the needs created by different organizational situations. No single contingency theory has been postulated. Some of the theories are: Fiedlers contingency theory: Fiedlers theory is the earliest and most extensively researched. Fiedlers approach departs from trait and behavioral models by asserting that group performance is contingent on the leaders psychological orientation and on three contextual variables: group atmosphere, task structure, and leaders power position. Hersey & Blanchards situational theory This theory is an extension of Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid Model and Reddins 3-D management style theory. With this model came the expansion of the notion of relationship and task dimensions to leadership and adds a readiness dimension. Contingency theory of decision making Vroom and Yettons decision participation contingency theory or the Normative decision theory According to this model, the effectiveness of a decision procedure depends upon a number of aspects of the situation: the importance of the decision quality and acceptance; the amount of relevant information possessed by the leader and subordinates; the likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or cooperate in trying to make a good decision if allowed to participate; the amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred alternatives. Contingency rules theory Smiths contingency rules theory is an example of a rules approach to persuasion. Smith utilizes the idea of cognitive schemas, expectations about the attributes that a given person or policy will have or expectancies about the consequences of behaving in a particular manner. These schemata function as contingency rules that both shape the way something is viewed and structure behavior. Smith suggests that rules and schemata explain persuasion better than the traditional concept of attitude. According to Smiths contingency rules theory, rules are used to create responses to persuasive messages. Self-evaluative rules are

associated with our self-concept and our image. Adaptive rules are those that will apply effectively in a particular situation the rules most likely to generate a positive outcome. Behavioral contingency rules are contextual. In some situations, certain consequences are considered and certain rules are activated which guide behavior. In other situations, other rules are activated. External threats and rewards are meaningful only if they apply to ones personal goals. Conceptual Model

Tocom model. Source: Woudstra E., & Gemert, L. van. (1994) Favorite Methods General social science methods.

Scope and Application Organizational communication.

Example To be added

References Key publications

Barney, J.B. (1985). Dimensions of Informal Social Network Structure: Toward a Contingency Theory of Informal Relations in Organizations, Social Networks, 7, 1-46. Goldhaber, G.M. (1993). Organizational communication. Sixth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Heath, L.R. (1994). Management of corporate communication. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K.H. (1974). So You Want to Know Your Leadership Style? Training and Development Journal, February 1974, 1-15. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K.H. (1993). Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Pugh, D.S. (1990). Organization Theory - Selected Readings (417-424), 3rd Edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Vecchio, R.P. (1988). Organizational Behavior (286-304). Chicago: Dryden Press. Vroom, V.H., & Jago, A.G. (1988). The new leadership: Managing participation in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall House, R. (1997). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. Leadership Quarterly, 7 (3), 323-352. Smith, M. J. (1984). Contingency rules theory, context, and compliance behaviors. Human Communication Research, 10, 489-512. Woudstra, E. & Gemert, L. van (1994). Planning van de interne communicatie: een kader. In J. Jaspers e.a. (Eds.). Handboek interne communicatie. (C5.2.3-C5.2.28). Houten: Bohn Stafleu Van Loghum. See also Organizational Communication

2.4. Media Richness Theory

a medium fits with a task History and Orientation Media richness theory is based on contingency theory and information processing theory (Galbraith 1977). First proponents of the theory were made by Daft & Lengel (1984).

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: Researchers Daft, Lengel and successors propose that communication media have varying capacities for resolving ambiguity, negotiating varying interpretations, and facilitating understanding. Two main assumptions of this theory are: people want to overcome equivocality and uncertainty in organizations and a variety of media commonly used in organizations work better for certain tasks than others. Using four criteria, Daft and Lengel present a media richness hierarchy, arranged from high to low degrees of richness, to illustrate the capacity of media types to process ambiguous communication in organizations. The criteria are (a) the availability of instant feedback; (b) the capacity of the medium to transmit multiple cues such as body language, voice tone, and inflection; (c) the use of natural language; and (d) the personal focus of the medium. Face-to-face communication is the richest communication medium in the hierarchy followed by telephone, electronic mail, letter, note, memo, special report, and finally, flier and bulletin. From a strategic management perspective, the media richness theory suggests that effective managers make rational choices matching a particular communication medium to a specific task or objective and to the degree of richness required by that task (Trevino, Daft, & Lengel, 1990, in Soy, 2001).

Conceptual Model

Media richness model Source: Suh (1999)

Favorite Methods Content analysis.

Scope and Application All sorts of media.

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Daft, R.L. & Lengel, R.H. (1984). Information richness: a new approach to managerial behavior and organizational design. In: Cummings, L.L. & Staw, B.M. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior 6, (191-233). Homewood, IL: JAI Press.

Daft, R.L. & Lengel, R.H. (1986). Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science 32(5), 554-571. Daft, R.L., Lengel, R.H., & Trevino, L.K. (1987). Message equivocality, media selection, and manager performance: Implications for information systems. MIS Quarterly, 355-366. Galbraith, J. (1977). Organization Design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Lengel, R.H. & Daft, R.L. (1988). The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill. Academy of Management Executive, 2(3), 225-232. Rice, R. & Shook, D. (1990). Relationships of Job Categories and Organizational Levels to Use of Communication Channels, including Electronic Mail: A Meta-Analysis and Extension. Journal of Management Studies, 27, 195-229. Suh, K.S. (1999). Impact of communication medium on task performance and satisfaction: an examination of media-richness theory. Information & Management, 35, 295-312. Trevino, L.K., Lengel, R.K. & Daft, R.L. (1987). Media Symbolism, Media Richness and media Choice in Organizations. Communication Research, 14(5), 553-574. Trevino, L., Lengel, R., Bodensteiner, W., Gerloff, E. & Muir, N. (1990). The richness imperative and cognitive style: The role of individual differences in media choice behavior. Management Communication Quarterly, 4(2). See also Mass Media, Organizational Communication

3. Macro-level theories 3.1. Agenda Setting Theory

the creation of what the public thinks is important History and Orientation Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media the ability to tell us what issues are important. As far back as 1922, the newspaper columnist Walter Lippman was concerned that the media had the power to present images to the public. McCombs and Shaw investigated presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972 and 1976. In the research done in 1968 they focused on two elements: awareness and information. Investigating the agenda-setting function of the mass media, they attempted to assess the relationship between what voters in one community said were important issues and the actual content of the media messages used during the campaign. McCombs and Shaw concluded that the

mass media exerted a significant influence on what voters considered to be the major issues of the campaign.

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the news media. Two basis assumptions underlie most research on agenda-setting: (1) the press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it; (2) media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues as more important than other issues. One of the most critical aspects in the concept of an agenda-setting role of mass communication is the time frame for this phenomenon. In addition, different media have different agenda-setting potential. Agenda-setting theory seems quite appropriate to help us understand the pervasive role of the media (for example on political communication systems). Statement: Bernard Cohen (1963) stated: The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.

Conceptual Model

Agenda-setting Source: McQuail & Windahl (1993)

Favorite Methods

Content-analysis of media, interviews of audiences.

Scope and Application Just as McCombs and Shaw expanded their focus, other researchers have extended investigations of agenda setting to issues including history, advertising, foreign, and medical news.

Example McCombs and Shaw focused on the two elements: awareness and information. Investigating the agenda-setting function of the mass media in the 1968 presidential campaign, they attempted to assess the relationship between what voters in one community said were important issues and the actual content of media messages used during the campaign. McCombs and Shaw concluded that the mass media exerted a significant influence on what voters considered to be the major issues of the campaign.

References Key publications

Kleinnijenhuis, J. & Rietberg, E.M. (1995). Parties, media, the public and the economy: Patterns of societal agenda-setting. European journal of political research: official journal of the European Consortium for Political Research, 28(1), 95-118 McCombs, M.E. & Shaw, D. (1972). The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. POQ, 36; 176187. McCombs, M.E. (1972). Mass Communication in Political Campaigns: Information, Gratification and Persuasion. In: Kline, F. & Tichenor, Ph.J. (Eds.) Current Perspectives in Mass Communication Research. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage. McCombs, M.E. (1982). The Agenda-Setting Approach. In: Nimmo, D. & Sanders, K. (Eds.) Handbook of Political Communication. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage. McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L. (1972). The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (Summer), 176-187. McCombs, M.E., & Weaver, D. (1973). Voters Need for Orientation and Use of Mass Communication. Presented at the annual conference of the International Communication Association. Montreal, Canada.

McCombs, M.E., & Weaver, D. (1985). Toward a Merger of Gratifications and Agenda-Setting Research. In: Rosengren, K.E., Wenner, L.A. & Palmgreen, P. (Eds.) Media Gratifications Research: Current Perspectives. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage. McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L., & Weaver, D.L. (1997). Communication and Democracy: Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum. Rogers, E.M., & Dearing, J.W. (1988). Agenda-setting research: Where has it been? Where is it going? In: Anderson, J.A. (Ed.). Communication yearbook 11 (555-594). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Rogers, E.M., Hart, W. B., & Dearing, J.W. (1997). A paradigmatic history of agenda-setting research. In Iyengar, S. & Reeves, R. (Eds.) Do the media govern? Politicians, voters, and reporters in America (225-236). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage. Shaw, D. L. & McCombs, M. (1977). The Emergence of American Political Issues: The AgendaSetting Function of the Press. St. Paul: West. See also: Priming, Framing, Hypodermic Needle Theory See also Mass Media & Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer Behavior.

3.2. Cultivation Theory

television shapes concepts of social reality History and Orientation With the decline of hypodermic needle theories a new perspective began to emerge: the stalagmite theories. Black et. al. used the metaphor of stalagmite theories to suggest that media effects occur analogously to the slow buildup of formations on cave floors, which take their interesting forms after eons of the steady dripping of limewater from the cave ceilings above. One of the most popular theories that fits this perspective is cultivation theory. Cultivation theory (sometimes referred to as the cultivation hypothesis or cultivation analysis) was an approach developed by Professor George Gerbner, dean of the Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. He began the 'Cultural Indicators' research project in the mid1960s, to study whether and how watching television may influence viewers' ideas of what the everyday world is like. Cultivation research is in the 'effects' tradition. Cultivation theorists argue that television has long-term effects which are small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.

Core Assumptions and Statements

Cultivation theory in its most basic form, suggests that television is responsible for shaping, or cultivating viewers conceptions of social reality. The combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for our culture as a whole. Gerbner argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values which are already present in a culture: the media maintain and propagate these values amongst members of a culture, thus binding it together. He has argued that television tends to cultivate middle-of-the- road political perspectives. Gerbner called this effect mainstreaming. Cultivation theorists distinguish between first order effects (general beliefs about the everyday world, such as about the prevalence of violence) and second order effects (specific attitudes, such as to law and order or to personal safety). There is also a distinction between two groups of television viewers: the heavy viewers and the light viewers. The focus is on heavy viewers. People who watch a lot of television are likely to be more influenced by the ways in which the world is framed by television programs than are individuals who watch less, especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers may have more sources of information than heavy viewers. Resonance describes the intensified effect on the audience when what people see on television is what they have experienced in life. This double dose of the televised message tends to amplify the cultivation effect.

Conceptual Model

Cultivation Theory Source: Hawkins and Pingree (1983)

Favorite Methods Cultivation analysis usually involves the correlation of data from content analysis (identifying prevailing images on television) with survey data from audience

research (to assess any influence of such images on the attitudes of viewers). Audience research by cultivation theorists involves asking large-scale public opinion poll organizations to include in their national surveys questions regarding such issues as the amount of violence in everyday life. Answers are interpreted as reflecting either the world of television or that of everyday life. The answers are then related to the amount of television watched, other media habits and demographic data such as sex, age, income and education.

Scope and Application Cultivation research looks at the mass media as a socializing agent and investigates whether television viewers come to believe the television version of reality the more they watch it.

Example In a survey of about 450 New Jersey schoolchildren, 73 percent of heavy viewers compared to 62 percent of light viewers gave the TV answer to a question asking them to estimate the number of people involved in violence in a typical week. The same survey showed that children who were heavy viewers were more fearful about walking alone in a city at night. They also overestimated the number of people who commit serious crimes. This effect is called mean world syndrome. One controlled experiment addressed the issue of cause and effect, manipulating the viewing of American college students to create heavy- and light-viewing groups. After 6 weeks of controlled viewing, heavy viewers of action-adventure programs were indeed found to be more fearful of life in the everyday world than were light viewers.

References Key publications

Boyd-Barrett, Oliver & Peter Braham (Eds.) (1987). Media, Knowledge & Power. London: Croom Helm. Condry, John (1989). The Psychology of Television. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dominick, Joseph R. (1990). The Dynamics of Mass Communication. New York: McGraw-Hill. Evra, Judith van (1990). Television and Child Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976a). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26, 172-199. Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976b). The scary world of TVs heavy viewer. Psychology Today, 10(4), 41-89. Hawkins R.P & Pingree, S. (1983). Televisions influence on social reality. In: Wartella, E., Whitney, D. & Windahl, S. (Eds.) Mass Communication Review Yearbook, Vol 5. Beverley Hills CA: Sage. Livingstone, S. (1990). Making Sense of Television. London: Pergamon. McQuail, D. & Windahl, S. (1993). Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communication. London: Longman. Stappers, J.G. (1984) De eigen aard van televisie; tien stellingen over cultivatie en culturele indicatoren. Massacommunicatie 12(5-6), 249-258. See also Media, Culture and Society, Mass Media

3.3. Diffusion of Innovations Theory

the adoption of new ideas, media, etc. (or: Multi-step flow theory)

History and Orientation Diffusion research goes one step further than two-step flow theory. The original diffusion research was done as early as 1903 by the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde who plotted the original S-shaped diffusion curve. Tardes' 1903 S-shaped curve is of current importance because "most innovations have an S-shaped rate of adoption" (Rogers, 1995).

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: Diffusion research centers on the conditions which increase or decrease the likelihood that a new idea, product, or practice will be adopted by members of a given culture. Diffusion of innovation theory predicts that media as well as interpersonal contacts provide information and influence opinion and judgment. Studying how innovation occurs, E.M. Rogers (1995) argued that it consists of four stages: invention, diffusion (or communication) through the social system,

time and consequences. The information flows through networks. The nature of networks and the roles opinion leaders play in them determine the likelihood that the innovation will be adopted. Innovation diffusion research has attempted to explain the variables that influence how and why users adopt a new information medium, such as the Internet. Opinion leaders exert influence on audience behavior via their personal contact, but additional intermediaries called change agents and gatekeepers are also included in the process of diffusion. Five adopter categories are: (1) innovators, (2) early adopters, (3) early majority, (4) late majority, and (5) laggards. These categories follow a standard deviationcurve, very little innovators adopt the innovation in the beginning (2,5%), early adopters making up for 13,5% a short time later, the early majority 34%, the late majority 34% and after some time finally the laggards make up for 16%. Statements: Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over a period of time among the members of a social system. An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived to be new by an individual or other unit of adoption. Communication is a process in which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding (Rogers, 1995). Conceptual Model

Diffusion of innovation model.

Source: Rogers (1995) Favorite Methods Some of the methods are network analysis, surveys, field experiments and ECCO analysis. ECCO, Episodic Communication Channels in Organization, analysis is a form of a data collection log-sheet. This method is specially designed to analyze and map communication networks and measure rates of flow, distortion of messages, and redundancy. The ECCO is used to monitor the progress of a specific piece of information through the organization.

Scope and Application Diffusion research has focused on five elements: (1) the characteristics of an innovation which may influence its adoption; (2) the decision-making process that occurs when individuals consider adopting a new idea, product or practice; (3) the characteristics of individuals that make them likely to adopt an innovation; (4) the consequences for individuals and society of adopting an innovation; and (5) communication channels used in the adoption process.

Example To be added. References Key publications

Rogers, E.M. (1976). New Product Adoption and Diffusion. Journal of Consumer Research, 2 (March), 290 -301. Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th edition). The Free Press. New York. Pijpers, R.E., Montfort, van, K. & Heemstra, F.J. (2002). Acceptatie van ICT: Theorie en een veldonderzoek onder topmanagers. Bedrijfskunde, 74,4. See also: Two Step Flow Theory See also Communication and Information Technology

3.4. Hypodermic Needle Theory

direct influence via mass media Or: Magic Bullet Theory (in Dutch also known as: almacht van de media-theorie, stimulus-response, injectienaald, transportband, lont in het kruidvat theorie). History and Orientation The "hypodermic needle theory" implied mass media had a direct, immediate and powerful effect on its audiences. The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were perceived as a powerful influence on behavior change. Several factors contributed to this "strong effects" theory of communication, including: - the fast rise and popularization of radio and television - the emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and propaganda - the Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which focused on the impact of motion pictures on children, and - Hitler's monopolization of the mass media during WWII to unify the German public behind the Nazi party Core Assumptions and Statements The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly and uniformly by shooting or injecting them with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response. Both images used to express this theory (a bullet and a needle) suggest a powerful and direct flow of information from the sender to the receiver. The bullet theory graphically suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head". With similarly emotive imagery the hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately influenced by the message. They express the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message. There is no escape from the effect of the message in these models. The population is seen as a sitting duck. People are seen as passive and are seen as having a lot media material "shot" at them. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other source of information.

New assessments that the Magic Bullet Theory was not accurate came out of election studies in "The People's Choice," (Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, 1944/1968). The project was conducted during the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to determine voting patterns and the relationship between the media and political behavior. The majority of people remained untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than the media. The effects of the campaign were not all-powerful to where they persuaded helpless audiences uniformly and directly, which is the very definition of what the magic bullet theory does. As focus group testing, questionnaires, and other methods of marketing effectiveness testing came into widespread use; and as more interactive forms of media (e.g.: internet, radio call-in shows, etc.) became available, the magic bullet theory was replaced by a variety of other, more instrumental models, like the two step of flow theory and diffusion of innovations theory.

Conceptual Model

Magic bullet theory model Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)

Favorite Methods To be added.

Scope and Application

Mass media.

Example The classic example of the application of the Magic Bullet Theory was illustrated on October 30, 1938 when Orson Welles and the newly formed Mercury Theater group broadcasted their radio edition of H.G. Wells' "War of the Worlds." On the eve of Halloween, radio programming was interrupted with a "news bulletin" for the first time. What the audience heard was that Martians had begun an invasion of Earth in a place called Grover's Mill, New Jersey. It became known as the "Panic Broadcast" and changed broadcast history, social psychology, civil defense and set a standard for provocative entertainment. Approximately 12 million people in the United States heard the broadcast and about one million of those actually believed that a serious alien invasion was underway. A wave of mass hysteria disrupted households, interrupted religious services, caused traffic jams and clogged communication systems. People fled their city homes to seek shelter in more rural areas, raided grocery stores and began to ration food. The nation was in a state of chaos, and this broadcast was the cause of it. Media theorists have classified the "War of the Worlds" broadcast as the archetypal example of the Magic Bullet Theory. This is exactly how the theory worked, by injecting the message directly into the "bloodstream" of the public, attempting to create a uniform thinking. The effects of the broadcast suggested that the media could manipulate a passive and gullible public, leading theorists to believe this was one of the primary ways media authors shaped audience perception.

References Key publications

Davis, D.K. & Baron, S.J. (1981). A History of Our Understanding of Mass Communication. In: Davis, D.K. & Baron, S.J. (Eds.). Mass Communication and Everyday Life: A Perspective on Theory and Effects (19-52). Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing. Golden, L.L. & Alpert, M.I. (1987). Comparative Analysis of the Relative Effectiveness of One- and Two-sided Communication for Contrasting Products. Journal of Advertising, 16(1), 18-25. Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1968). The peoples choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press. Berger, Arthur Asa Essentials of Mass Communication Theory London: SAGE Publications, 1995.

Casmir, Fred L. Building Communication Theories New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates, 1994. Croteau, David and William Hoynes Media/Society -- Industries, Images and Audiences London: Pine Forge Press, 1997. DeFleur, Melvin L. Theories of Mass Communication New York: Longman Inc., 1989 Lowery, Shearon and Melvin L. DeFleur Milestones in Mass Communication Research: Media Effects New York: Longman Inc., 1983. Severin, Werner J. and James W. Tankard, Jr. Communication Theories -- Origins, Methods and Uses New York: Hastings House, 1979. Watson, James and Anne Hill A Dictionary of Communication and Media Studies New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1997 Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. (1955), Personal Influence, New York: The Free Press. See also Two-Step Flow Theory See also Mass Media

3.5. Medium Theory

the medium affects perception (also known as channel theory, or media formalism)

History and Orientation McLuhan (1964) challenged conventional definitions when he claimed that the medium is the message. With this claim, he stressed how channels differ, not only in terms of their content, but also in regard to how they awaken and alter thoughts and senses. He distinguished media by the cognitive processes each required. McLuhan popularized the idea that channels are a dominant force that must be understood to know how the media influence society and culture.

Core Assumptions and Statements Core: Medium theory focuses on the medium characteristics itself (like in media richness theory) rather than on what it conveys or how information is received. In medium theory, a medium is not simply a newspaper, the Internet, a digital

camera and so forth. Rather, it is the symbolic environment of any communicative act. Media, apart from whatever content is transmitted, impact individuals and society. McLuhans thesis is that people adapt to their environment through a certain balance or ratio of the senses, and the primary medium of the age brings out a particular sense ratio, thereby affecting perception. Statement: Some of the metaphors used by McLuhan are: The medium is the message! The medium is the massage. We live in a mess-age. The content of a new medium is an old medium.

Conceptual Model Not applicable. Favorite Methods Medium theory is an analytical theory with few empirical model building. Some of the methods used are: analysis of media characteristics and historical analysis of human perception.

Scope and Application Medium theory examines physical, psychological and social variables as the senses that are required to attend to the medium; whether the communication is bi-directional or uni-directional, how quickly messages can be disseminated, whether learning to encode and decode in the medium is difficult or simple, how many people can attend to the same message at the same moment, and so forth. Medium theorists argue that such variables influence the medium's use and its social, political, and psychological impact.

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Innis, H. (1964). The Bias of Communication. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Innis, H. (1972). Empire and Communications. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extentions of men. New York: McGraw-Hill. McLuhan, M., & Fiore, Q. (1967). The medium is the massage. An inventory of effects. New York: Bantam Books. McLuhan, M. & & Fiore, Q. (1968). War and peace in the global village. New York: Bantam Books. McLuhan, M. (1978). The brain and the media: The Western hemisphere. Journal of communication, vol. 28(4), 54-60. Meyrowitz, Joshua. (1985), No Sense of Place, The impact of electronic media on social behavior. New York: Oxford University Press. See also: Media Richness Theory See also Mass Media, Media, Culture and Society

3.6. Priming
media effects History and Orientation Much attention in agenda-setting research, in the 80s, was focused on the concept of priming. This concept was derived from the cognitive psychological concept of priming.

Core Assumptions and Statements Priming refers to enhancing the effects of the media by offering the audience a prior context a context that will be used to interpret subsequent communication. The media serve to provide the audience with standards and frames of reference. Agenda-setting refers mainly to the importance of an issue; priming tells us whether something is good or bad, whether it is communicated effectively, etc. The media have primed the audience about what a news program looks like, what a credible person looks like, etc.

Conceptual Model

Not applicable.

Favorite Methods Experiments, panel studies, cross-sectional field studies.

Scope and Application News mass-media

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Cappella, J.N., Fishbein, M., Hornik, R., Ahern, R.K., & Sayeed, S. (2001). Using theory to select messages in antidrug media campaigns: Reasoned action and media priming. In:Rice, R.E. & Atkin, C.K. (Eds.), Public communication campaigns (214-230). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Domke, D., Shah, D.V., & Wackman, D.B. (1998). Media priming effects: accessibility, association, and activation. Communications abstracts, 21( 6). Scheufele, D.A. (2001). Agenda-setting, priming, and framing revisited: another look at cognitive effects of political communication. Communication abstracts, 24(1). See also: Agenda-Setting, Framing See also Mass Media, Communication Processes, Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer Behavior.

3.7. Spiral of Silence

formation of public opinion

History and Orientation Neumann (1974) introduced the spiral of silence as an attempt to explain in part how public opinion is formed. She wondered why the Germans supported wrong political positions that led to national defeat, humiliation and ruin in the 1930s1940s. Core Assumptions and Statements The phrase "spiral of silence" actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel that their views are in the minority. The model is based on three premises: 1) people have a "quasi-statistical organ," a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to know the prevailing public opinion, even without access to polls, 2) people have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase their likelihood of being socially isolated, and 3) people are reticent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated. The closer a person believes the opinion held is similar to the prevailing public opinion, the more they are willing to openly disclose that opinion in public. Then, if public sentiment changes, the person will recognize that the opinion is less in favor and will be less willing to express that opinion publicly. As the perceived distance between public opinion and a person's personal opinion grows, the more unlikely the person is to express their opinion. Conceptual Model

Source: Noelle-Neumann (1991). Favorite Methods To be added. Scope and Application

It is related to the mass media, in such a way that mass media influences public opinion. Shifts in public opinion occur commonly and therefore this theory is used to search an explanation for behavior (speak up or stay silent). The theory has also been criticized for ambiguity and methodological weakness, but the idea has persisted. Evidence of the spiral effect is usually small but significant. Example This example shows an effect of the theory where during the 1991 Gulf War the U.S. support for the war was measured. Either it is a consensus view or did media coverage contribute to a spiral of silence that dampened opposition to the war? In a survey that asked about peoples opinions, respondents were clearly less supportive of the war than the popular support depicted by the media. Those who watched television and perceived that the public supported the war, were more likely tot support the war themselves. This study supports the spiral of silence and suggests that people are swayed by bandwagon effects rather than fearing social isolation. References Key publications
Glynn, J.C., Hayes, F.A. & Shanahan, J. (1997). Perceived support for ones opinions sand willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies on the spiral of silence Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (3):452-463. Glynn, J.C. & McLeod, J. (1984). Public opinion du jour: An examination of the spiral of silence, Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (4):731-740. Noelle-Neumann, E. (1984). The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion -- Our social skin. Chicago: University of Chicago. Noelle-Neumann, E. (1991). The theory of public opinion: The concept of the Spiral of Silence. In J. A. Anderson (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 14, 256-287. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Simpson, C. (1996). Elisabeth Noelle-Neumanns spiral of silence and the historical context of communication theory. Journal of Communication 46 (3):149-173. Taylor, D.G. (1982). Pluralistic ignorance and the spiral of silence: A formal analysis, Public Opinion Quarterly 46 (3):311-335. See also: Kennamer, J.D. (1990). Self-serving biases in perceiving the opinions of others: Implications for the spiral of silence, Communication Research 17 (3):393-404; Yassin Ahmed Lashin (1984). Testing the spiral of silence hypothesis: Toward an integrated theory of public opinion. Unpublished dissertation, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. See Mass Media, Media, Culture and Society

3.8. Two Step Flow Theory

influence of media messages History and Orientation The two-step flow of communication hypothesis was first introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in The People's Choice, a 1944 study focused on the process of decision-making during a Presidential election campaign. These researchers expected to find empirical support for the direct influence of media messages on voting intentions. They were surprised to discover, however, that informal, personal contacts were mentioned far more frequently than exposure to radio or newspaper as sources of influence on voting behavior. Armed with this data, Katz and Lazarsfeld developed the two-step flow theory of mass communication. Core Assumptions and Statements This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content. The term personal influence was coined to refer to the process intervening between the medias direct message and the audiences ultimate reaction to that message. Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors and are quite similar to those they influence. The two-step flow theory has improved our understanding of how the mass media influence decision making. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior, and it helped explain why certain media campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitudes an behavior. The two-step flow theory gave way to the multi-step flow theory of mass communication or diffusion of innovation theory. Conceptual Model

Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)

Favorite Methods To be added.

Scope and Application All kinds of mass media can be researched with this theory (TV, radio, internet).

Example To be added.

References Key publications

Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The peoples choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press. Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. (1955), Personal Influence, New York: The Free Press. Katz, Elihu (1973). The two-step flow of communication: an up-to-date report of an hypothesis. In Enis and Cox(eds.), Marketing Classics, p175-193. Weimann, Gabriel. (1994). Is there a two-step flow of Agenda Setting? International Journal of Public Opinion, v6, n4, p323. Baran, Stanley J. Theories of Mass Communication http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0767421906/student_view0/chapter12/glossary.html (13.Nov.2003) Cortez, Lisa Bio of Paul Lazarsfeld http://www.utexas.edu/coc/journalism/SOURCE/j363/lazarsfeld.html (13.Nov.2003) DeFleur, Melvin and Lowery, Shearon Milestone in Mass Communication Research White Plains,NY. Longman Publishers.1995 Mersham, Gary and Skinner, Chris. Mass Communication Audiences. http://www.comsci.co.za/acmc04/audience.html (13.Nov.2003) Underwood, Mick Mass Media: Limited Effects. http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/index.html (13.Nov.2003) See also: Hypodermic Needle Theory, Diffusion of Innovations Theory See also Mass Media