Navigation...

Longitude and latitude The earth can be regarded as a spherical object, and since we're dealing with a 3-dimensional shape we need coordinates of a different form than the usual x- and y-axes. Though adding an extra z-axes would make sense for submarines, we will most likely be found on the surface of this sphere while using another system of coordinates, that covers our planet with imaginary lines called meridians and parallels, see figure 1. All these lines together provide the grid which enables us to describe any position in longitudes and latitudes.
The obvious place to divide the Northern and Southern Hemispheres was the equator. But the division of the Eastern and Western hemispheres was the source of much political turmoil. Greenwich (Great Britain) won, placing for example The Netherlands in the Eastern and Ireland in the Western Hemisphere. It takes the earth 24 hours for a full rotation of 360. Thus, every hour we rotate 15 longitude, see figure 2. When it is 12:00 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) - anywhere in the world - it is 12:00 Local Time in Greenwich and 24:00 Local Time at the other side of the planet: 180 E or 180 W: the date line. Crossing this special meridian changes not only the hour but also the date. The North Pole has a latitude of 90 N and the South Pole 90 S. The meridians cover twice this angle up to 180 W or E. Meridians converge at the poles, whereas parallels run parallel to each other and never meet. All meridians and the equator - the biggest parallel - form great circles, and the remaining parallels form so-called small circles. A great circle divides the earth in two exact halves. In figure 3 the position of Boston in the United States is shown using latitude and longitude in degrees, minutes and seconds: 42 21' 30" N , 71 03' 37" W Most sailors will actually notate seconds in metric fractions of minutes: 42 21',5 N , 71 03',6 W or 42 21'.5 N , 71 03'.6 W On small scaled charts we want to be accurate within one minute or one nautical mile. On larger scaled charts the accuracy is more likely to be within a tenth of a mile (a cable). If the earth were a perfect sphere with a circumference of roughly 40000 kilometres all great circles - meridians plus the equator - would have the same length and could be used as a distance unit when divided into 360 degrees, or 360 x 60' = 21600' minutes. In 1929, the international community agreed on the definition of 1 international nautical mile as 1852 metres, which is roughly the average length of one minute of latitude i.e. one minute of arc along a line of longitude (a meridian). Or to put it shortly: 1 nm = 1' We are now able to describe any position in latitudes and longitudes. Moreover, we can state the distance between two of those positions using nautical miles or minutes. All we need now is a proper way to define speed. For that, sailors use knots, the number of nautical miles an hour.

Nautical Charts...
Projections
The nautical chart is a 2-dimensional representation of a 3-dimensional world. And although this results in various distortions, as long as two requirements are met we can use this image for navigational purposes.

1.

The angles between three objects in the chart should be the same as the angles between the real objects which they represent.

2. A straight course should appear as a straight line in the chart.

To fulfil these demands a nautical chart requires parallels and meridians that are both straight and parallel. Moreover, the meridians will need to be perpendicular to the parallels. A well known method to create such a chart is called the Mercator projection after Gerard Mercator Kremer , a Flemish scholar who studied in 's Hertogenbosch and Leuven and who invented his famous projection in 1569. The Mercator chart was designed for sailors and can be constructed by wrapping a cylinder around the planet so that it touches the equator. On this cylinder the surface of the earth is projected and finally the cylinder is cut open to yield our chart. But where the meridians converge on the globe they run parallel in the projection (see chart below), indicating the distortion. Look, for example, at a high parallel. The length of such a parallel on the globe is much smaller than the equator. Yet, on the chart they have exactly the same length creating a distortion which gets bigger nearer to the poles. The figure below shows us the construction of the Mercator projection. From this it is clear that only the vertical scales should be used for measuring distances.

The vertical scale depicted on the right demonstrates the distortion. The two little grey markers have the same size, the upper one measures only 0.71 degrees while the other measures 1.00 degrees. So, distances (in miles or in minutes) should not only be read on the vertical scale, but also at approximately the same height. The horizontal scale is only valid for one latitude in the chart and can therefore only be used for the coordinates (a point, but not a line). If you divide the surface of the earth in eight pieces, and lift one out and project it, you end up with the figure below. The result is that both A-A' and B-B' are now as long as the bottom of the chart and are too long. But there are of course other projections in use by sailors. An important one is the Stereographic projection, which is constructed by projecting on a flat plane instead of a cylinder. On this chart parallels appear as slightly curved and also the meridians converge at high latitudes. So, strictly speaking, a straight course will not appear as a straight line in the chart, but the parallels remain perpendicular to the meridians. Most often, distortions are scarcely noticed when this projection is used to chart a small area. Like the Mercator projection, the vertical scale represents a meridian and should be used for measuring distances. Another projection is the Gnomeric projection on which the meridians are again converging. But most importantly, the parallels are arcs of a circle while great circles appear as straight lines. On a sphere the shortest route between A and B is not a straight line but an arc (part of a great circle). Though this is also true when you for example cross a little bay, we use for simplification a loxodrome (a handy straight line on your Mercator chart which does not reflect your shortest route). On a Gnomeric chart this same loxodrome is an arc, while your shortest route (a great circle) ends up as a straight line. Hence, the gnomeric projection is particularly useful when

sailing great circles (like when you dabble in circumnavigation) and is beyond the scope of a coastal navigation course.

Compass navigation...
Magnetic Variation
In the fin-de-sicle of the sixteenth century mariners believed that the magnetic north pole coincided with the geographic north pole. Any suggestion otherwise had been denied by Pedro de Medina. Magnetic observations made by explorers in subsequent decades showed however that these suggestions were true. But it took until the early nineteenth century, to pinpoint the magnetic north pole somewhere in Arctic Canada (78 N , 104 W). From then on the angle between the true North and the Magnetic North could be precisely corrected for. This correction angle is called magnetic variation or declination. It is believed that the Earth's magnetic field is produced by electrical currents that originate in the hot, liquid, outer core of the rotating Earth. The flow of electric currents in this core is continually changing, so the magnetic field produced by those currents also changes. This means that at the surface of the Earth, both the strength and direction of the magnetic field will vary over the years. This gradual change is called the secular variation of the magnetic field. Therefore, variation changes not only with the location of a vessel on the earth but also varies in time.

Correcting for variation

The correction for magnetic variation is shown for your location on your current navigation chart's compass rose. Take for example a variation of 2 50' E in 1998. In 2000, this variation is estimated to be 2 54', almost 3 East. This means that if we sail 90 on the chart (your true course), the compass would read 87. To convert your true course into a compass course we need first assign a - to a Western and a + to a Eastern variation. From the following equation you will see that this makes sense :

87 cc + 3 var = 90 tc , in which cc and tc stand for compass course and true course,
respectively. We can use the same equation to convert a compass course into a true course. If we steered a compass course of 225 for a while, we have to plot this as a true course of 228 in the chart.

Magnetic deviation

Magnetic deviation is the second correctable error. The deviation error is caused by magnetic forces within your particular boat. Pieces of metal, such as an engine or an anchor, can cause magnetic forces. And also stereo and other electric equipment or wiring, if too close to the compass, introduce large errors in compass heading. Furthermore, the deviation changes with the ship's heading, resulting in a deviation table as shown below. The vertical axis states the correction in degrees West or East, where East is positive.

The horizontal axis states the ship's heading in degrees divided by ten. Thus, when you sail a compass course of 220, the deviation is 4 W. When a compass is newly installed it often shows larger deviations than this and needs compensation by carefully placing small magnets around the compass. It is the remaining error that is shown in your deviation table. You can check your table every now and then by placing your boat in the line of a pair of leading lights and turning her 360 degrees.

Correcting for both deviation and variation

Converting a compass course into a true course, we can still use our equation but we need to add the correction for deviation:

cc + var + dev = tc
Example 1: The compass course is 330, the deviation is +3 (table) and the variation is +3 (chart);

330 cc + 3 var + 3 dev = ? tc

giving a true course of 336 which we can plot in our chart Example 2: The compass course is 220, the deviation is -4 (table) and the variation is still +3 (chart).

giving a true course of 219 which we can plot in our chart. Converting a true course into a compass course is a little less straight forward, but it is still done with the same equation. Example 3: The true course from the chart is 305 and the variation is +3 (chart), yet we don't know the deviation;

220 cc + 3 var + -4 dev = ? tc ? cc + 3 var + ? dev = 305 tc

Luckily, rewritten this reads:

305 tc - + 3 var = cc + dev = 302

In plain English: the difference between the true course and the variation (305 - + 3) = 302 should also be the summation of the compass course and the deviation. So, we can tell our helms person to steer 300, since with a cc of 300 we have a deviation of +2 (As can be deduced from the deviation table above). Example 4: The true course from the chart is 150 and we have a Western variation of 7 degrees (-7). We will use the rewritten equation to get:

150 tc - - 7 var = cc + dev = 157

From the deviation table we find a compass course of 160 with a deviation of -3. Voil!

Magnetic course

The magnetic course (mc) is the heading after magnetic variation has been considered, but without compensation for magnetic deviation. This means that we are dealing with the rewritten equation from above: tc - var = cc + dev = mc. Magnetic courses are used for two reasons. Firstly, the magnetic course is used to convert a true course into a compass course like we saw in the last paragraph. Secondly, on boats with more than one compass more deviation tables are in use; hence only a magnetic or true course is plotted in the chart. To summarise, we have three types of north (true, magnetic and compass north) like we have three types of courses (tc, mc and cc). All these are related by deviation and variation

Plotting Navigation...
Lines of Position
The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable navigation aids like churches and lighthouses, which facilitate the approach to a coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by Waghenaer and proved a milestone in the

development of European cartography. This work was called Spieghel der Zeevaerdt and included coastal profiles and tidal information much like the modern chart. It enables us to find the angle between the North and for example a platform, as seen from our position.

Taking a bearing on this oilrig with a compass provides us with a compass course. This course first needs correction for both variation and - via ship's heading - deviation the chart. Our position is somewhere along this line. before plotting a Line of Position (LOP) in

Ranges

A precise way to obtain a LOP (and without a compass) is to locate two navigational aids in line. The image on the right shows us four examples of ranges, each consisting of two nav. aids. Please, note that: More distance between the two nav. aids enhances accuracy. And less distance between the vessel and the closest nav. aid also enhances accuracy.

One of the four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally placed to provide a LOP. These pairs of lights are called Range lights or Leading lights. In this case they indicate the channel between the shallows along a true course of 50 . .

When looking toward the leading lights, the closest one will be lower

Therefore, in the middle of the channel both lights will appear above each other. Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be found by using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The example on the left shows a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as the islets don't overlap.

The Position Fix

To construct our position fix we need two of these lines of position to intersect each other. Fix is the initial element of the ship's navigational and dead reckoning (see below) plot. A fix is the ship's position on the earth at some given point in time. A fix is determined by the simultaneous intersection of LOP's. Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction. This indicates that there are errors involved in at least one of the bearings taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as the average bearing in a wider sector of, for instance 10. Bearings create more certainty about our position when they are perpendicular to each other. Yet, bearings on distant objects bring about more uncertainty in our position fix as the sector widens. If moving fast you should not put any time between the bearings.

In the next example we will plot our position fix by taking bearings at two light vessels just off the coast of Willemsen Land. To plot in the chart we will use a soft pencil and avoid drawing lines through the chart symbols. This is to prevent damage to the chart when you have to erase the construction. Since we use our steering compass for our bearings the same deviation table can be used. We will assume the variation to be -1 and the ship's compass heading 190. Hence, from the deviation table we find a deviation of -4. The construction: The first compass bearing on 'Will. N' is 65. cc + var. + dev. = tc, therefore tc = 60.

Plot the LOP in the chart aligned to this lightship. Mark 'Time' and 'True Course' along with it.

Mutatis mutandis the second LOP on 'Will. W' is 145. The intersection of these two LOP's is our Position Fix. Mark this with an 'Ellipse' and the 'Time'. The greater the uncertainty, the greater the ellipse (position area). Fixed Position around 15h00m = 39 58'.9 N , 24 25'.5 E, approximately. So, welcome to my island but mind the rocks!

Tides...
Tidal movements
The tide is the vertical rise and fall of the sea level surface caused primarily by the change in gravitational attraction of the moon, and to a lesser extent the sun. As the earth spins on its axis the centrifugal force results in slightly deeper water near the equator as opposed to shallower water at the poles. In fact it causes a flow from the poles to the equator. The earth is also in orbit around the sun (one revolution in one year) creating not only another centrifugal force but also a gravitational interaction. These two yield a bulge on the night site (centrifugal) and a bulge on the day site (gravitational) both of them moving as the world turns. Therefore, a certain place on this world will experience two high and two low tides each day. With these forces alone, we would not have spring tides and neap

tides . Spring tides have higher high tides and lower low tides whereas neap tides have lower high tides and higher low tides. Hence, the range (difference in water level between high and low tide) is much larger in a spring tide than in a low tide.

This animation shows how the tide changes during the lunar cycle. When the sun, moon and earth are aligned : spring tide. When at right angles the forces are not aligned: neap tide. The time between spring and neap is approximately 7 days.

These differences in range can be explained if we include the moon into our earth-sun system. The moon and the earth orbit each other around a point (called the barycenter or baricenter) 2000 odd kilometres inside the earth, creating a centrifugal and a gravitational bulge. Moreover, despite the sun's immensely larger mass, the moon exerts a 2.25 times larger gravitational attraction, since the moon is much closer to our earth. It is the combined effect of the sun and moon that creates spring and neap tides. In the animation the gravitational forces of both the sun and the moon are taken into account. When aligned with the earth they combine their attraction and otherwise they counteract their attraction. The sun is located in the corner right below, far outside this picture (note the eclipse) while the moon is revolving round the earth. One full circle corresponds to one lunar cycle (about 28 days). The figure below shows the ideal sinusoids of both spring and neap tides. Vertically the water height is shown versus horizontally the time. Ideally, the time between a low and a successive high is somewhat more than 6 hours. The time difference between spring tide and neap tide is normally 7 days and is in accordance with the phases of the moon. Yet, water has mass and therefore momentum. Moreover, it is a viscous fluid that generates friction if moved. Therefore, the actual spring tide lags a day or so behind a full moon or new moon occurrence. So, tidal movements are intrinsically periodical, resulting in a Tidal day of 24 hours and 50 minutes containing one tidal cycle, namely two highs and two lows. This basic pattern may be distorted by the effects of landmasses, constrained waterways, friction, the Coriolis effect, or other factors. Hence, predictions are possible and we expect the the next day's high tide to come about 50 minutes later. However, a closer look at the orbit of the moon reveals that the moon is not always in the equatorial plane, resulting in three types of tides: Semi-diurnal tide: Featuring two highs and two lows each day, with minimal variation in the height of successive high or low waters. This type is more likely to occur when the moon is over the equator. Diurnal tide: Only a single high and a single low during each tidal day; successive high and low waters do not vary by a great deal. This tends to occur in certain areas when the moon is at its furthest from the equator. Mixed tide: Characterized by wide variations in heights of successive high and low waters, and by longer tidal cycles than those of the semi-diurnal cycle. These tides also tend to occur as the moon moves furthest north or south of the equator.

Chart Datums

The depths and heights in the chart need a plane of reference: the Chart Datum (see interactive figure below). Depths are usually described with respect to low water reference planes (yielding lower charted depths, which are safer) and heights are shown with respect to high water reference planes (again, yielding lower vertical clearances on the chart, which are safer). As such, the chance that the observed depth or vertical clearance beneath a bridge is smaller than the charted depth or height is rather small.

In this example the Charted Depths are related to LAT. The Observed Depth or Drying Height is a combination of Tidal Height & Charted Depth.

This example shows the various spring and neap tides around mean water level. Note that spring low water is the lowest. Both ranges are indicated.

In this example the light elevation is reduced to high water. Also a clearance under a bridge is charted in that way. The 'height' refers to the building itself. On land yet another CD can be in use.

Some Chart Datums and their abbreviations: MHWS : Mean High Water Spring HW : High Water MHWN : Mean High Water Neap ML : Mean Level MLWN : Mean Low Water Neap MLWS : Mean Low Water Spring LAT : Low Astronomical Tide

Tide Predictions...
1 - Information from the chart
Most often the chart presents succinct tide tables for certain positions. These positions are marked with the 'square'. The table below shows us an example for two different positions. The first refers to Cowes (UK), the second to a position south of Cowes.

This data only provides us with average high and low waters heights. Moreover, it is merely valid at spring or neap tides. To use it we need to first find out how many hours we are from high water. Secondly, we need to know if it is spring or neap or sometime in between at that particular moment. We shall use this table to solve two types of problems. Finding height of tide at a particular location at a particular time: To get over a shoal. To pass under a bridge.

Heights above LAT Position Mean HW Spring Cowes 1.7 m 5.2 m Neap 1.5 m 4.3 m Mean LW Spring 0.2 m 0.4 m Neap 0.4 m 1.2 m

Almanacs and many other nautical publications contain predictions of the times of high and low tides at many major standard ports . Also listed are differences in times of tides from these ports for additional secondary ports . To work with this succinct data we need two extra tools: To interpolate between high and low water heights we use the Rule of Twelve. We assume the tidal curve to be a perfect sinusoid with a period of 12 hours. The height changes over the full range in the six hours between HW and LW. During first hour after HW the water drops 1/12 During the second hour an additional 2/12 . During the third hour an additional 3/12 . During the fourth hour an additional 3/12 . During the fifth hour an additional 2/12 . During the sixth hour an additional 1/12 . Hence, two hours after the HW the water has fallen 3/12 of the full range. To interpolate between spring and neap tides we use the Rule of Seven. Since the change from spring range to neap range can be assumed linear (instead of sinusoid), each day the range changes with 1/7th of difference between the spring and neap ranges. Hence, the daily change in range is (spring range - neap range)/7. Shoal problem: Our shoal near Cowes has a charted depth of 1 meter and we would like to cross it at about 15:00 hours with our yacht (draft 1,5 m). From any nautical almanac we find that HW occurs at 03:18 15:53 and LW occurs at 09:45 22:03at a standard port nearby. We also find that at our location HW occurs one hour later and that spring tide is due in two days. Hence, we have a HW around 17:00. Via the rule of seven we find out that today the range is: spring range - 2 x ( (spring range - neap range)/7 ) <=> 4,8 - 2 x ( ( 4,8 - 3,1)/7 ) <=> 4,8 - 2 x 0,25 = 4,3 m. We also need today's HW height: which is Spring HW - 2 days x ( (5,2 -4,3)/7 ) = 5,0 m .
th th th th th th

of the full range.

Via the rule of twelve we find out that at two hours before high water the height is: 5,0 - 3/12 x 4,3 = height at 15:00 hours = 3,9 m. So, after three interpolations we derive the water height at 1500 hours. Considering the charted depth leads to an observed depth of 4,9 meters, enough for our draft of 1,5 meters. Bridge problem: An overhanging rock, power lines or bridges have their clearances charted with respect to another chart datum than LAT. Normally, 'high water' or 'MHW spring' are used as reference planes. An example: Above our shoal hangs the 'Cowes bridge'. At 15:00 hours we would like to pass this bridge, which has a charted height of 20 meters to HW. Our mast is 23 meters high. In the example above we found that the water height was 1,1 meters below HW level at that time. Obviously, we will have to wait! So, at what time will we be able to pass under this bridge?

The water height must be 3 meters lower than HW level (5,0 m). That is almost 9/12 of the range (4,3 m) indicating four hours after HW . Conclusion, we will have to wait at least six hours in total. Instead of mere averages, a tide table provides us each day with the times of high and low water for a particular place. Basically, it is same table like the one we found in the chart, but is extended for every day in a year. By using this method we get more accurate water heights since it involves less interpolation. The example shows us a part of a very detailed tide table, which even includes heights for every hour.

2 - Information from tide tables

3 - Information from tidal curves

In most tables the tides can also be characterized by a tidal curve. This method substitutes the rule of twelve providing more accurate heights. The left side contains the water height information with the lowest heights to the left where also the chart datum is indicated. The low water height will be marked at the bottom and the high water height will be marked at the top.

The area under the curve will be marked with the time information. To find the water height at a specific time we need to know first how many hours before or after the HW this is. Then

Lights Bouys...
Navigation aids

Navigation aids are special structures like lighthouses, lightships, beacons, buoys, etc that are used to enhance safety by providing more opportunities to obtain LOPs. These lights and marks are prescribed across the world by the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). In 1977 this IALA endorsed two maritime buoyage systems putting an end to the 30 odd systems existing at that time. Region A (IALA A) covers all of Europe and most of the rest of the world whereas region B (IALA B) covers only the America's, Japan, the Philippines and Korea. Fortunately, the differences between these two systems are few. The most striking difference is the direction of buoyage (see Lateral buoys below). All marks within the IALA system are distinguished by: Shape Colour Top mark Light

Light Identification
During daytime identification of navigation aids is accomplished by observing: location, shape, colour scheme, auxiliary features (sound signals, RACON , RC , etc) or markings (name, number, etc). During the night, we use the features of the navigation aid's light to both identify it and ascertain its purpose. There are three features to describe the light: Colour: Either white, red, green or yellow. If no colour is stated in the chart, default is white.

Period: The time in seconds needed for one complete cycle of changes. The arrow indicates the 10 second period of this flashing light 'Fl(3) 10 s'. Phase characteristic: The particular pattern of changes within one complete cycle (hence, within one period). Below are the most common types: Fixed (F) This light shines with an unblinking and steady intensity and is always on. In this example a yellow fixed light is shown. Flashing (Fl): The duration of the light is always less than the duration of the darkness. The frequency does not exceed 30 times per minute. Quick Flashing (Q): Again, the duration of quick flash is less than the darkness. The frequency is at least 60 times per minute. Very Quick Flashing (VQ): Also here, the duration of very quick flash is less than the darkness. The frequency is at least 100 times per minute. Interrupted Quick Flashing (IQ): Like Quick Flashing with one moment of darkness in one period. Isophase (Iso): This Light has equal duration between light and darkness. A period consists of both a light and a dark interval. Also called Equal Interval (E Int). Group Flashing (Gp Fl(x+x)): This is actually a combination of two patterns in one period. In this example the first 2 flashes followed by the pattern of 3 flashes result in 'Gp Fl(2+3)'. Occulting (Occ): Occulting is the opposite of flashing, the light is more on then off.

Alternating (AL): An alternating light changes colour. This special purpose light is typically used for special applications requiring the exercise of great caution. In this example ALT.WG is shown, alternating between green and white. Morse "U" (Mo (U)): This light shows two flashes and a longflash, which is equivalent to the letter "U" in

Morse code. Long-Flashing (LFL):

This light has one long flash in a period. A long flash is at least 2 seconds long. Let's look at some examples using colour, period and phase characteristics. The arrows mark the periods: Fl (4) 8 s Oc (2+3) 10 s Iso G 4 s All lighted navigation aids are either major or minor lights, where major lights are used for key navigational points along seacoasts, channels and harbour and river entrances. These lights are normally placed in lightships, lighthouses and other permanently installed structures, providing both high intensity and high reliability of the lights. Major lights are then subdivided in primary lights (very strong, long range lights used for the purpose of making landfalls or coastal passages) and secondary lights (shorter range lights found for example at harbour and river entrances). Important details of (especially) primary lights can be found in a reference called the Light List where information (about pedestals etc.) can be found which is not included in the chart. Minor lights on the other hand are likely to be found within harbours, along channels and rivers. These have a low to moderate intensity and sometimes mark isolated dangers.

Five types of navigation buoys:

Lateral Cardinal Isolated danger Safe water special

Lateral Buoys and Marks

The location of lateral buoys defines the borders of channels and indicates the direction. Under IALA A red buoys mark the port side of the channel when returning from sea, whereas under IALA B green buoys mark the port side of the channel when sailing towards land. Red buoys have even numeration plus red lights and green buoys have odd numeration plus green lights. Lateral lights can have any calm phase characteristic except FL (2+1). Generally, when two channels meet one will be designated the preferred channel (i.e. most important channel). The buoy depicted on the right indicates the preferred channel to starboard FL (2+1): . under IALA A. The light phase characteristic is R

The buoy depicted on the left indicates the preferred channel to port under IALA A. These buoys are marked with the numerations of both channels. The light phase characteristic is G FL (2+1):

Cardinal Buoys
The four cardinal buoys indicate the safe side of a danger with an approximate bearing. For example, the West cardinal buoy has safe water on its West and the danger on its East side. Notice the 'clockwise' resemblance of the light phase characteristics. The topmarks consist of two black triangles placed in accordance with the black/yellow scheme of the buoy. When a new obstacle (not yet shown on charts) needs to be marked, two cardinal buoys will be used to indicate this 'uncharted' danger. The cardinal system is identical in both the IALA A and IALA B buoyage systems.

Marks indicating Isolated dangers

This type of buoy indicates the position of an isolated danger, contrary to cardinal buoys which indicate a direction away from the danger. The light (when present) consists of a white group flash: Fl(2).

Marks indicating Safe water

Notice that whereas most horizontal striping 'spells

danger', this safe water buoy is vertically striped. These marks are for example seaward of all other buoys (lateral and cardinal) and can be used to make landfall. Lights are usually calm and white.

Special Buoys and Marks

We saved these buoys for last since they have not an actual navigation purpose. Most of the time these yellow buoys indicate areas used by navies or pipelines or surfing.

Range
It is important to know at what distance (range) we may see a certain light, and when we can expect to lose sight of it, especially when making landfall. This range can be defined in several ways: Charted or Nominal Range: The nominal range is indicated in the chart next to the light or can be found in the Light List. This is the maximum distance at which a light may be seen at night based upon intensity and 10 nautical miles of visibility.