CHAPTER 24

THE SAILINGS

INTRODUCTION

2400. Introduction of these vertices the direction changes progressively until

the intersection with the equator is reached, 90° in longitude
Dead reckoning involves the determination of one’s away, where the great circle crosses the equator at an angle
present or future position by projecting the ship’s course equal to the latitude of the vertex.
and distance run from a known position. A closely related On a Mercator chart a great circle appears as a sine
problem is that of finding the course and distance from one curve extending equal distances each side of the equator.
known point to another known point. For short distances, The rhumb line connecting any two points of the great cir-
these problems are easily solved directly on charts, but for cle on the same side of the equator is a chord of the curve.
long distances, a purely mathematical solution is often a Along any intersecting meridian the great circle crosses at
better method. Collectively, these methods are called The a higher latitude than the rhumb line. If the two points are
Sailings. on opposite sides of the equator, the direction of curvature
Navigational computer programs and calculators com- of the great circle relative to the rhumb line changes at the
monly contain algorithms for computing all of the problems equator. The rhumb line and great circle may intersect each
of the sailings. For those situations when a calculator is not other, and if the points are equal distances on each side of
available, this chapter also discusses sailing solutions by the equator, the intersection takes place at the equator.
Table 4, the Traverse Tables. Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter dis-
tance along the great circle between two points, rather than
2401. Rhumb Lines And Great Circles the longer rhumb line. The arc of the great circle between
the points is called the great circle track. If it could be fol-
The principal advantage of a rhumb line is that it main- lowed exactly, the destination would be dead ahead
tains constant true direction. A ship following the rhumb throughout the voyage (assuming course and heading were
line between two places does not change true course. A the same). The rhumb line appears the more direct route on
rhumb line makes the same angle with all meridians it a Mercator chart because of chart distortion. The great cir-
crosses and appears as a straight line on a Mercator chart. cle crosses meridians at higher latitudes, where the distance
For any other case, the difference between the rhumb line between them is less. This is why the great circle route is
and the great circle connecting two points increases (1) as shorter than the rhumb line.
the latitude increases, (2) as the difference of latitude be- The decision as to whether or not to use great-circle
tween the two points decreases, and (3) as the difference of sailing depends upon the conditions. The saving in distance
longitude increases. should be worth the additional effort, and of course the great
A great circle is the intersection of the surface of a circle route cannot cross land, nor should it carry the vessel
sphere and a plane passing through the center of the sphere. into dangerous waters. Composite sailing (see section 2402
It is the largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the and section 2411) may save time and distance over the
sphere, and is the shortest distance along the surface be- rhumb line track without leading the vessel into danger.
tween any two points. Any two points are connected by Since great circles other than a meridian or the equator
only one great circle unless the points are antipodal (180° are curved lines whose true direction changes continually,
apart on the earth), and then an infinite number of great cir- the navigator does not attempt to follow it exactly. Rather,
cles passes through them. Every great circle bisects every he selects a number of points along the great circle, con-
other great circle. Thus, except for the equator, every great structs rhumb lines between the points, and follows these
circle lies exactly half in the Northern Hemisphere and half rhumb lines from point to point.
in the Southern Hemisphere. Any two points 180° apart on
a great circle have the same latitude numerically, but con- 2402. Kinds Of Sailings
trary names, and are 180° apart in longitude. The point of
greatest latitude is called the vertex. For each great circle, There are seven types of sailings:
there is a vertex in each hemisphere, 180° apart in longi-
tude. At these points the great circle is tangent to a parallel 1. Plane sailing solves problems involving a single
of latitude, and its direction is due east-west. On each side course and distance, difference of latitude, and de-

355
356 THE SAILINGS

parture, in which the earth is regarded as a plane used:

surface. This method, therefore, provides solution
for latitude of the point of arrival, but not for longi- 1. Latitude (L). The latitude of the point of departure
tude. To calculate the longitude, the spherical is designated Ll; that of the destination, L2; middle
sailings are necessary. Do not use this method for (mid) or mean latitude, Lm; latitude of the vertex of
distances of more than a few hundred miles. a great circle, Lv; and latitude of any point on a
2. Traverse sailing combines the plane sailing solu-
great circle, Lx.
tions when there are two or more courses and
determines the equivalent course and distance 2. Mean latitude (Lm). Half the arithmetical sum of the
made good by a vessel steaming along a series of latitudes of two places on the same side of the equator.
rhumb lines. 3. Middle or mid latitude (Lm). The latitude at
3. Parallel sailing is the interconversion of departure which the arc length of the parallel separating the
and difference of longitude when a vessel is pro- meridians passing through two specific points is
ceeding due east or due west. exactly equal to the departure in proceeding from
4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean lat- one point to the other. The mean latitude is used
itude for converting departure to difference of when there is no practicable means of determining
longitude when the course is not due east or due west. the middle latitude.
5. Mercator sailing provides a mathematical solution
4. Difference of latitude (l or DLat.).
of the plot as made on a Mercator chart. It is similar
to plane sailing, but uses meridional difference and 5. Meridional parts (M). The meridional parts of the
difference of longitude in place of difference of lat- point of departure are designated Ml, and of the
itude and departure. point of arrival or the destination, M2.
6. Great circle sailing involves the solution of cours- 6. Meridional difference (m).
es, distances, and points along a great circle 7. Longitude (λ). The longitude of the point of depar-
between two points. ture is designated λ1; that of the point of arrival or
7. Composite sailing is a modification of great-circle the destination, λ2; of the vertex of a great circle, lv;
sailing to limit the maximum latitude, generally to and of any point on a great circle, λx
avoid ice or severe weather near the poles.
8. Difference of longitude (DLo).
2403. Terms And Definitions 9. Departure (p or Dep.).
10. Course or course angle (Cn or C).
In solutions of the sailings, the following quantities are 11. Distance (D or Dist.).

GREAT CIRCLE SAILING

2404. Great Circle Sailing By Chart parture replaces the assumed position of the observer, the
destination replaces the geographical position of the body, dif-
Navigators can most easily solve great-circle sailing ference of longitude replaces meridian angle or local hour angle,
problems graphically. DMAHTC publishes several gno- initial course angle replaces azimuth angle, and great circle dis-
monic projections covering the principal navigable waters tance replaces zenith distance (90° - altitude). See Figure 2405.
of the world. On these great circle charts, any straight line Therefore, any table of azimuths (if the entering values are me-
is a great circle. The chart, however, is not conformal; ridian angle, declination, and latitude) can be used for
therefore, the navigator cannot directly measure directions determining initial great-circle course. Tables which solve for
and distances as on a Mercator chart. altitude, such as Pub. No. 229, can be used for determining great
The usual method of using a gnomonic chart is to plot circle distance. The required distance is 90° - altitude.
the route and pick points along the track every 5° of longi-
In inspection tables such as Pub. No. 229, the given
tude using the latitude and longitude scales in the immediate
combination of L1, L2, and DLo may not be tabulated. In
vicinity of each point. These points are then transferred to a
Mercator chart and connected by rhumb lines. The course this case reverse the name of L2 and use 180° - DLo for en-
and distance for each leg is measured on the Mercator chart. tering the table. The required course angle is then 180°
See Chapter 25 for a discussion of this process. minus the tabulated azimuth, and distance is 90° plus the al-
titude. If neither combination can be found, solution cannot
2405. Great Circle Sailing By Sight Reduction Tables be made by that method. By interchanging L1 and L2, one
can find the supplement of the final course angle.
Any method of solving a celestial spherical triangle can be Solution by table often provides a rapid approximate
used for solving great circle sailing problems. The point of de- check, but accurate results usually require triple interpola-
 THE SAILINGS 357

Figure 2405. Adapting the astronomical triangle to the navigational triangle of great circle sailing.

tion. Except for Pub. No. 229, inspection tables do not comes the distance; the supplement of the tabular azimuth
provide a solution for points along the great circle. Pub. No. angle becomes the initial great-circle course angle.
229 provides solutions for these points only if interpolation When the Contrary/Same (CS) Line is crossed in either
is not required. direction, the altitude becomes negative; the body lies be-
low the celestial horizon. For example: If the tables are
2406. Great Circle Sailing By Pub. No. 229 entered with the LHA (DLo) at the bottom of a right-hand
page and declination (L2) such that the respondents lie
By entering Pub. No. 229 with the latitude of the point above the CS Line, the CS Line has been crossed. Then the
of departure as latitude, latitude of destination as declina- distance is 90° plus the tabular altitude; the initial course
tion, and difference of longitude as LHA, the tabular angle is the supplement of the tabular azimuth angle. Simi-
altitude and azimuth angle may be extracted and converted larly, if the tables are entered with the LHA (DLo) at the top
to great-circle distance and course. As in sight reduction, of a right-hand page and the respondents are found below
the tables are entered according to whether the name of the the CS Line, the distance is 90° plus the tabular altitude; the
latitude of the point of departure is the same as or contrary initial course angle is the supplement of the tabular azimuth
to the name of the latitude of the destination (declination). angle. If the tables are entered with the LHA (DLo) at the
If the values correspond to those of a celestial body above bottom of a right-hand page and the name of L2 is contrary
the celestial horizon, 90° minus the arc of the tabular alti- to L1, the respondents are found in the column for L1 on the
tude becomes the distance; the tabular azimuth angle facing page. In this case, the CS Line has been crossed; the
becomes the initial great-circle course angle. If the respon- distance is 90° plus the tabular altitude; the initial course
dents correspond to those of a celestial body below the angle is the supplement of the tabular azimuth angle.
celestial horizon, the arc of the tabular altitude plus 90° be- The tabular azimuth angle, or its supplement, is pre-
358 THE SAILINGS

fixed N or S for the latitude of the point of departure and becomes the distance; the supplement of tabular
suffixed E or W depending upon the destination being east azimuth angle (180° - 69.0° = 111.0°) becomes
or west of the point of departure. the initial great circle course angle, prefixed N
If all entering arguments are integral degrees, the dis- for the latitude of the point of departure and suf-
tance and course angle are obtained directly from the tables fixed W since the destination is west of the point
without interpolation. If the latitude of the destination is of departure.
nonintegral, interpolation for the additional minutes of lati- Note that the data is extracted from across the CS Line
tude is done as in correcting altitude for any declination from the entering argument (LHA 87°), indicating
increment; if the latitude of departure or difference of lon- that the corresponding celestial body would be be-
gitude is nonintegral, the additional interpolation is done low the celestial horizon.
graphically.
Since the latitude of destination becomes the declina- Answer:
tion entry, and all declinations appear on every page, the D = 6137 nautical miles
great circle solution can always be extracted from the vol- C = N111.0°W = 249°.
ume which covers the latitude of the point of departure.
2407. Great Circle Sailing By Computation
Example 1: Using Pub. No. 229 find the distance and
initial great circle course from lat. 32°S, long. In Figure 2407, 1 is the point of departure, 2 the desti-
116°E to lat. 30°S, long. 31°E. nation, P the pole nearer 1, l-X-V-2 the great circle through
1 and 2, V the vertex, and X any point on the great circle.
Solution: Refer to Figure 2405. The point of departure The arcs P1, PX, PV, and P2 are the colatitudes of points 1,
(lat. 32°S, long. 116°E) replaces the AP of the ob- X, V, and 2, respectively. If 1 and 2 are on opposite sides of
server; the destination (lat. 30°S, long. 31°E) the equator, P2 is 90°+ L2. The length of arc 1-2 is the great-
replaces the GP of the celestial body; the differ- circle distance between 1 and 2. Arcs 1-2, P1, and P2 form
ence of longitude (DLo 85°) replaces local hour a spherical triangle. The angle at 1 is the initial great-circle
angle (LHA) of the body. course from 1 to 2, that at 2 the supplement of the final
Enter Pub. 229, Volume 3 with lat. 32° (Same Name), great-circle course (or the initial course from 2 to 1), and
LHA 85°, and declination 30°. The respondents that at P the DLo between 1 and 2.
correspond to a celestial body above the celestial Great circle sailing by computation usually involves
horizon. Therefore, 90° minus the tabular altitude solving for the initial great circle course; the distance; lati-
(90° - 19°12.4’ = 70°47.6’) becomes the distance; tude and longitude, and sometimes the distance, of the
the tabular azimuth angle (S66.0°W) becomes the vertex; and the latitude and longitude of various points (X) on
initial great circle course angle, prefixed S for the the great circle. The computation for initial course and the
latitude of the point of departure and suffixed W distance involves solution of an oblique spherical triangle,
due to the destination being west of the point of
departure.

Answer:
D = 4248 nautical miles
C = S66.0°W = 246.0°.

Example 2: Using Pub. No. 229 find the distance and

initial great circle course from lat. 38°N, long.
122°W to lat. 24°S, long. 151°E.

Solution: Refer to Figure 2405. The point of departure

(lat. 38°N, long. 122°W) replaces the AP of the ob-
server; the destination (lat. 24°S, long. 151°E)
replaces the GP of the celestial body; the differ-
ence of longitude (DLo 87°) replaces local hour
angle (LHA) of the body
Enter Pub. No. 229 Volume 3 with lat. 38° (Contrary
Name), LHA 87°, and declination 24°. The re-
spondents correspond to those of a celestial body
below the celestial horizon. Therefore, the tabu- Figure 2407. The navigational triangle and great circle
lar altitude plus 90° (12°17.0’ + 90° = 102°17.0’) sailing.
 THE SAILINGS 359

and any method of solving such a triangle can be used. If 2 is Answer:

the geographical position (GP) of a celestial body (the point
at which the body is in the zenith), this triangle is solved in D (NM.) 300 600 900 6600
celestial navigation, except that 90° - D (the altitude) is de- D (arc) 5° 10° 15° 110°
sired instead of D. The solution for the vertex and any point dec 85° 80° 75° 20°
X usually involves the solution of right spherical triangles. Lat. 39.6° N 40.9° N 41.9° N 3.1° N
Dep. 125° W 125° W 125° W 125° W
DLo 6.1° 12.4° 18.9° 118.5°
2408. Points Along The Great Circle Long 131.1°W 137.4°W 143.9°W 116.5°E

If the latitude of the point of departure and the initial 2409. Finding The Vertex
great-circle course angle are integral degrees, points along
the great circle are found by entering the tables with the lat- Using Pub. No. 229 to find the approximate position of
itude of departure as the latitude argument (always Same the vertex of a great circle track provides a rapid check on
Name), the initial great circle course angle as the LHA ar- the solution by computation. This approximate solution is
gument, and 90° minus distance to a point on the great also useful for voyage planning purposes.
circle as the declination argument. The latitude of the point Using the procedures for finding points along the great
on the great circle and the difference of longitude between circle, inspect the column of data for the latitude of the
that point and the point of departure are the tabular altitude point of departure and find the maximum value of tabular
and azimuth angle, respectively. If, however, the respon- altitude. This maximum tabular altitude and the tabular az-
dents are extracted from across the CS Line, the tabular imuth angle correspond to the latitude of the vertex and the
altitude corresponds to a latitude on the side of the equator difference of longitude of the vertex and the point of
opposite from that of the point of departure; the tabular az- departure.
imuth angle is the supplement of the difference of
longitude. Example 1: Find the vertex of the great circle track
from lat. 38°N, long. 125°W when the initial great
circle course angle is N69°W.
Example 1: Find a number of points along the great
circle from latitude 38°N, longitude 125°W when
Solution: Enter Pub. No. 229 with lat. 38° (Same
the initial great circle course angle is N111°W.
Name), LHA 69°, and inspect the column for lat.
38° to find the maximum tabular altitude. The max-
Solution: Entering the tables with latitude 38° (Same imum altitude is 42°38.1’ at a distance of 1500
Name), LHA 111°, and with successive declina- nautical miles (90° - 65° = 25°) from the point of
tions of 85°, 80°, 75°, etc., the latitudes and departure. The corresponding tabular azimuth an-
differences in longitude from 125°W are found as gle is 32.4°. Therefore, the difference of longitude
tabular altitudes and azimuth angles respectively: of vertex and point of departure is 32.4°.

Answer: Answer:

D (NM) 300 600 900 3600 Latitude of vertex = 42°38.1’N.

D (arc) 5° 10° 15° 60° Longitude of vertex = 125° + 32.4° = 157.4°W.
dec 85° 80° 75° 30°
Lat. 36.1° N 33.9° N 31.4° N 3.6° N 2410. Altering A Great Circle Track To Avoid
Dep. 125° W 125° W 125° W 125° W Obstructions
DLo 5.8° 11.3° 16.5° 54.1°
Long 130.8°W 136.3°W 141.5°W 179.1°W Land, ice, or severe weather may prevent the use of
great circle sailing for some or all of one’s route. One of the
principal advantages of solution by great circle chart is that
Example 2: Find a number of points along the great the presence of any hazards is immediately apparent. The
circle track from latitude 38°N, long. 125°W when pilot charts are particularly useful in this regard. Often a rel-
the initial great circle course angle is N 69° W. atively short run by rhumb line is sufficient to reach a point
from which the great circle track can be followed. Where a
Solution: Enter the tables with latitude 38° (Same choice is possible, the rhumb line selected should conform
Name), LHA 69°, and with successive declinations as nearly as practicable to the direct great circle.
as shown. Find the latitudes and differences of If the great circle route crosses a navigation hazard,
longitude from 125°W as tabular altitudes and az- change the track. It may be satisfactory to follow a great cir-
imuth angles, respectively: cle to the vicinity of the hazard, one or more rhumb lines
360 THE SAILINGS

along the edge of the hazard, and another great circle to the from the point of departure and the destination, tangent to
destination. Another possible solution is the use of compos- the limiting parallel. Then measure the coordinates of vari-
ite sailing; still another is the use of two great circles, one ous selected points along the composite track and transfer
from the point of departure to a point near the maximum lat- them to a Mercator chart, as in great circle sailing. Compos-
itude of unobstructed water and the second from this point ite sailing problems can also be solved by computation,
to the destination. using the equation:

2411. Composite Sailing

When the great circle would carry a vessel to a higher The point of departure and the destination are used suc-
latitude than desired, a modification of great circle sailing cessively as point X. Solve the two great circles at each end
called composite sailing may be used to good advantage. of the limiting parallel, and use parallel sailing along the
The composite track consists of a great circle from the point limiting parallel. Since both great circles have vertices at
of departure and tangent to the limiting parallel, a course the same parallel, computation for C, D, and DLovx can be
line along the parallel, and a great circle tangent to the lim- made by considering them parts of the same great circle
iting parallel and through the destination. with L1, L2, and Lv as given and DLo = DLov1 + DLov2.
Solution of composite sailing problems is most easily The total distance is the sum of the great circle and parallel
made with a great circle chart. For this solution, draw lines distances.

TRAVERSE TABLES

2412. Using Traverse Tables

Traverse tables can be used in the solution of any of

the sailings except great circle and composite. They consist
of the tabulation of the solutions of plane right triangles.
Because the solutions are for integral values of the course
ang0.2(an)10(d )-12 Cf.
 THE SAILINGS 361

From the first two of these formulas the following re- Answer:
lationships can be derived:
Diff. Lat. = 3° 07.3’ N
l = D cos C D = l sec C p = D sin C. departure = 16.4 miles

Label l as N or S, and p as E or W, to aid in identifica- (2) Difference of latitude and departure by traverse
tion of the quadrant of the course. Solutions by calculations table:
and traverse tables are illustrated in the following examples:
Refer to Figure 2413b. Enter the traverse table and
find course 005° at the top of the page. Using the
Example 1: A vessel steams 188.0 miles on course 005°.
column headings at the top of the table, opposite
188 in the Dist. column extract D. Lat. 187.3 and
Required: (1) (a) Difference of latitude and (b) depar- Dep. 16.4.
ture by computation. (2) (a) difference of latitude
and (b) departure by traverse table. (a) D. Lat. = 187.3’ N.
(b) Dep. = 16.4 mi. E.
Solution:
Example 2: A ship has steamed 136.0 miles north and
(1) (a) Difference of latitude by computation: 203.0 miles west.

diff latitude = D × cos C Required: (1) (a) Course and (b) distance by computa-
= 188.0 miles × cos (005°) tion. (2) (a) course and (b) distance by traverse
= 187.3 arc min table.
= 3° 07.3’ N
Solution:
(1) (b) Departure by computation:
(1) (a) Course by computation:
departure = D × sin C
= 188.0 miles × sin (005°) C =
deparature
arctan -----------------------------
= 16.4 miles diff. lat.

Figure 2413b. Extract from Table 4.

362 THE SAILINGS

203 beside each other in the columns labeled D.

203.0 Lat. and Dep., respectively. This occurs most
C = arc tan ------------
136.0
-
nearly on the page for course angle 56°. There-
fore, the course is 304°. Interpolating for
C = N 56 ° 10.8’ W intermediate values, the corresponding number in
the Dist. column is 244.3 miles.

C = 304° ( to nearest degree ) Answer:

Draw the course vectors to determine the correct
(a) C = 304°
course. In this case the vessel has gone north 136
miles and west 203 miles. The course, therefore, (b) D = 244.3 mi.
must have been between 270° and 360°. No solu-
tion other than 304° is reasonable. 2414. Traverse Sailing

(1) (b) Distance by computation: A traverse is a series of courses or a track consisting

of a number of course lines, such as might result from a sail-
ing vessel beating into the wind. Traverse sailing is the
D = diff. latitude × sec C finding of a single equivalent course and distance.
= 136 miles × sec (304°)
Though the problem can be solved graphically on the
= 136 miles × 1.8
chart, traverse tables provide a mathematical solution. The
= 244.8 miles
distance to the north or south and to the east or west on each
course is tabulated, the algebraic sum of difference of lati-
Answer: tude and departure is found, and converted to course and
distance.
C = 304°
D = 244.8 miles Example: A ship steams as follows: course 158°, dis-
tance 15.5 miles; course 135°, distance 33.7
(2) Solution by traverse table: miles; course 259°, distance 16.1 miles; course
293°, distance 39.0 miles; course 169°, distance
Refer to Figure 2413c. Enter the table and find 136 and 40.4 miles.

Figure 2413c. Extract from Table 4 .

 THE SAILINGS 363

Required: Equivalent single (1) course (2) distance. DLo = 210 arc min
p = DLo × cos L
Solution: Solve each leg as a plane sailing and tabu- p = 210 arc minutes × cos (49.5°)
late each solution as follows. For course 158°, p = 136.4 miles
extract the values for D. Lat. and Dep. opposite
155 in the Dist. column. Then, divide the values by Answer:
10 and round them off to the nearest tenth. Repeat
the procedure for each leg of the vessel’s journey. p = 136.4 miles
Course Dist. N S E W
(2) Solution by traverse table:
degrees mi. mi. mi. mi. mi.
Refer to Figure 2415a. Enter the traverse table with
latitude as course angle and substitute DLo as the
158 15.5 14.4 5.8
heading of the Dist. column and Dep. as the head-
135 33.7 23.8 23.8
ing of the D. Lat. column. Since the table is
259 16.1 3.1 15.8
293 39.0 15.2 35.9 computed for integral degrees of course angle (or
169 40.4 39.7 7.7 latitude), the tabulations in the pages for 49° and
50° must be interpolated for the intermediate val-
Subtotals 15.2 81.0 37.3 51.7 ue (49°30'). The departure for latitude 49° and
-15.2 -37.3 DLo 210' is 137.8 miles. The departure for latitude
N/S Total 50° and DLo 210' is 135.0 miles. Interpolating for
65.8 S 14.4 W the intermediate latitude, the departure is 136.4
Thus, the latitude difference is S 65.8 miles and the de- miles.
parture is W 14.4 miles. Convert this to a course
and distance using the formulas discussed in sec- Answer:
tion 2413.
p = 136.4 miles
Answer:
Example 2: The DR latitude of a ship on course 270°
is 38°15'S. The ship steams on this course for a
(1) C = 192.3°
distance of 215.5 miles.
(2) D = 67.3 miles.
Required: The change in longitude by (1) computation
2415. Parallel Sailing and (2) traverse table.

Parallel sailing consists of the interconversion of de- Solution:

parture and difference of longitude. It is the simplest form
of spherical sailing. The formulas for these transformations (1) Solution by computation
are:
DLo = 215.5 arc min × sec (38.25°)
DLo = p sec L p = DLo cos L DLo = 215.5 arc min × 1.27
Example 1: The DR latitude of a ship on course 090° DLo = 274.4 minutes of arc (west)
is 49°30' N. The ship steams on this course until DLo = 4° 34.4' W
the longitude changes 3°30'.
Answer:
Required: The departure by (1) computation and (2)
traverse table. DLo = 4° 34.4' W

Solution: (2) Solution by traverse table

(1) Solution by computation: Refer to Figure 2415b. Enter the traverse tables with
latitude as course angle and substitute DLo as the heading
of the Dist. column and Dep. as the heading of the D. Lat.
column. As the table is computed for integral degrees of
DLo = 3° 30'
course angle (or latitude), the tabulations in the pages for
364 THE SAILINGS

Figure 2415a. Extract fromTable 4.

Figure 2415b. Extract from Table 4.

38° and 39° must be interpolated for the minutes of latitude. normally used for want of a practicable means of determin-
Corresponding to Dep. 215.5 miles in the former is DLo ing the middle latitude, the latitude at which the arc length
273.5’, and in the latter DLo 277.3’. Interpolating for min- of the parallel separating the meridians passing through two
utes of latitude, the DLo is 274.4’W. specific points is exactly equal to the departure in proceed-
ing from one point to the other. The formulas for these
Answer: transformations are:

DLo = 4° 34.4’

2416. Middle-Latitude Sailing

·
DLo = p sec L m p = DLo cos L m .
Middle-latitude sailing combines plane sailing and par-
allel sailing. Plane sailing is used to find difference of
latitude and departure when course and distance are known,
or vice versa. Parallel sailing is used to interconvert depar- The mean latitude (Lm) is half the arithmetical sum of
ture and difference of longitude. The mean latitude (Lm) is the latitudes of two places on the same side of the equator.
 THE SAILINGS 365

It is labeled N or S to indicate its position north or south of column and Dep. as the heading of the D. Lat. col-
the equator. If a course line crosses the equator, solve each umn. Since the table is computed for integral
course line segment separately. degrees of course angle (or latitude), the tabula-
tions in the pages for 18° and 19° must be
Example 1: A vessel steams 1,253 miles on course 070° interpolated for the minutes of Lm. In the 18° table,
from lat. 15°17.0’ N, long. 151°37.0’ E. interpolate for DLo between the departure values
of 117.0 miles and 117.9 miles. This results in a
Required: Latitude and longitude of the point of arriv- DLo value of 123.9. In the 19° table, interpolate
al by (1) computation and (2) traverse table. for DLo between the departure values of 117.2
and 118.2. This yields a DLo value of 124.6.
Solution: Having obtained the DLo values corresponding to
mean latitudes of 18° and 19°, interpolate for the
(1) Solution by computation: actual value of the mean latitude: 18° 51.5' N. This
yields the value of DLo: 124.5. Multiply this final
l = D cos C; p = D sin C; and DLo = p sec Lm. value by ten to obtain DLo = 1245 minutes = 20°
45' E.
Add the changes in latitude and longitude to the origi-
nal position’s latitude and longitude to obtain the
D = 1253.0 miles.
final position.
C = 070°
l = 428.6' N
Answer:
p = 1177.4 miles E
L2 = 22° 26' N
L1 = 15°17.0' N λ2 = 172° 22.0' E
l = 7°08.6' N
L2 = 22°25.6' N Example 2: A vessel at lat. 8°48.9'S, long.
89°53.3'W is to proceed to lat. 17°06.9'S, long.
Lm = 18°51.3' N 104°51.6'W.

Required: Course and distance by (1) computation and

DLo = 1244.2' E (2) traverse table.

λ1 = 151°37.0' E Solution:
DLo = 20°44.2' E
λ2 = 172° 21.2' E (1) Solution by computation:
Answer: p
p = DLo cos L m ; tan C = --- ; and D = l sec C
l
L2 = 22° 25.6’ N
λ2 = 172° 21.2’ E
DLo = 14° 58.3'
(2) Solution by traverse tables: DLo = 898.3'
Lm = 12° 57.9' S
Refer to Figure 2416a. Enter the traverse table with p = 893.8 arc min × cos (12° 57.9')
course 070° and distance 1,253 miles. Because a p = 875.4 arc min
number as high as 1,253 is not tabulated in the
l = 17.1° - 8.8°
Dist. column, obtain the values for D. Lat. and
l = 8.3°
Dep. for a distance of 125.3 miles and multiply
them by 10. Interpolating between the tabular dis- l = 498 arc min
tance arguments yields D. Lat. = 429’ and Dep. =
875.4arcmin
1,178 miles. Converting the D. Lat. value to de- C = arc tan --------------------------------
498arcmin
grees of latitude yields 7° 09.0’. The point of
arrival’s latitude, therefore, is 22° 26' N. This re- C = S 60.4° W
sults in a mean latitude of 18° 51.5' N. C = 240.4°
Reenter the table with the mean latitude as course an-
gle and substitute DLo as the heading of the Dist. D = 498 arc min × sec (60.4°)
366 THE SAILINGS

D = 1008.2 miles
 THE SAILINGS 367

Figure 2416a. Extracts from the Table 4.

368 THE SAILINGS

Answer: The labels (N, S, E, W) of l, p, DLo, and C are deter-

mined by noting the direction of motion or the
C = 240.4° relative positions of the two places.
D = 1008.2 miles
2417. Mercator Sailing
The labels (N, S, E, W) of l, p, and C are determined by
noting the direction of motion or the relative posi-
Mercator sailing problems can be solved graphically
tions of the two places.
on a Mercator chart. For mathematical solution, the formu-
(2) Solution by traverse tables: las of Mercator sailing are:
DLo
Refer to Figure 2416b. Enter the traverse table with
tan C = -----------
m
DLo = m tan C .
the mean latitude as course angle and substitute
After solving for course angle by Mercator sailing,
DLo as the heading of the Dist. column and Dep.
as the heading of the D. Lat. column. Since the ta- solve for distance using the plane sailing formula:
ble is computed for integral values of course angle
D = l sec C
(or latitude), it is usually necessary to extract the
value of departure for values just less and just
greater than the Lm and then interpolate for the
Example 1: A ship at lat. 32°14.7’N, long. 66°28.9’W
minutes of Lm. In this case where Lm is almost 13°,
is to head for a point near Chesapeake Light, lat.
enter the table with Lm 13° and DLo 898.3’ to find
Dep. 875 miles. The departure is found for DLo 36°58.7’N, long. 75°42.2’W.
89.9’, and then multiplied by 10.
Reenter the table to find the numbers 875 and 498 be- Required: Course and distance by (1) computation and
side each other in the columns labeled Dep. and (2) traverse table.
D. Lat., respectively. Because these high numbers
are not tabulated, divide them by 10, and find 87.5 Solution:
and 49.8. This occurs most nearly on the page for
course angle 60° (fig. 2414c). Interpolating for in- (1) Solution by computation:
termediate values, the corresponding number in
DLo
the Dist. column is about 100.5. Multiplying this tan C = -----------, and D = l sec C
by 10, the distance is about 1005 miles. m

Answer: First calculate the meridional difference by entering

Table 6 and interpolating for the meridional parts
C = 240° for the original and final latitudes. The meridional
D = 1005 miles. difference is the difference between these two val-

Figure 2416b. Extract from Table 4.

 THE SAILINGS 369

Figure 2417a. Mercator and plane sailing relationships.

ues. Having calculated the meridional difference, (2) Solution by traverse table:
simply solve for course and distance from the
equations above. Refer to Figure 2417b. Substitute m as the heading of
the D. Lat. column and DLo as the heading of the
M2 (36° 58.7’ N) = 2377.5 Dep. column. Inspect the table for the numbers
343.7 and 553.3 in the columns relabeled m and
M1 (32° 14.7’ N) = 2032.9 DLo, respectively.
m = 344.6 Because a number as high as 343.7 is not tabulated in
the m column, it is necessary to divide m and DLo
λ2 = 075° 42.2’ W
by 10. Then inspect to find 34.4 and 55.3 abreast
λ1 = 066° 28.9’ W in the m and DLo columns, respectively. This oc-
DLo = 9° 13.3’ W curs most nearly on the page for course angle 58°
DLo = 553.3’ W or course 302°.
Reenter the table with course 302° to find Dist. for D.
C = arctan (553.3÷344.6’) Lat. 284.0’. This distance is 536 miles.
C = N 58.1° W
C = 301.9° Answer:

L2 = 36° 58.7’ N C = 302°

L1 = 32° 14.7’ N D = 536 miles
l = 4° 44.0’ N
l = 284.0’ Example 2: A ship at lat. 75°31.7’ N, long. 79°08.7’W,
in Baffin Bay, steams 263.5 miles on course 155°.
D = 284.0 arc min × sec (58.1°)
D = 537.4 miles Required: Latitude and longitude of point of arrival by
(1) computation and (2) traverse table.

Solution:
Answer:
(1) Solution by computation:
C = 301.9°
D = 537.4 miles l = D cos C; and DLo = m tan C
370 THE SAILINGS

Figure 2417b. Extract from Table 4 composed of parts of left and right hand pages for course 58°.

D = 263.5 mi. L2 = 71° 32.9’

C = 155°
l = 238.8 ’ S λ2 = 072° 34.1’
l = 3° 58.8 ’ S
(2) Solution by traverse table:
L1 = 75°31.7’ N
Refer toFigure 2417c . Enter the traverse table with
l = 3° 58.8’ S
course 155° and Dist. 263.5 miles to find D. Lat.
L2 = 71°32.9’ N
238.8’. The latitude of the point of arrival is found
by subtracting the D. Lat. from the latitude of the
M1 = 7072.4 point of departure. Determine the meridional dif-
M2 = 6226.1 ference by Table Table 4 (m = 846.3).
m = 846.3 Reenter the table with course 155° to find the DLo cor-
responding to m = 846.3. Substitute meridional
DLo = 394.6’ E difference m as the heading of the D. Lat. column
DLo = 6°34.6’ E and DLo as the heading of the Dep. column. Be-
cause a number as high as 846.3 is not tabulated
λ1 = 79°08.7’ W in the m column, divide m by 10 and then inspect
the m column for a value of 84.6. Interpolating as
DLo = 6°34.6’ E
necessary, the latter value is opposite DLo 39.4’.
l2 = 072°34.1’ W The DLo is 394’ (39.4’ × 10). The longitude of the
point of arrival is found by applying the DLo to the
longitude of the point of departure.
The labels (N, S, E, W) of l, DLo, and C are determined
by noting the direction of motion or the relative Answer:
positions of the two places.
L2 = 71°32.9’ N.
Answer: λ2 = 72°34.7’ W.
 THE SAILINGS 371

Figure 2417c. Extract from Table 4.

2418. Additional Problems Example: The 1530 DR position of a ship is lat.

44°36.3'N, long. 31°18.3'W. The ship is on course
Example: A vessel steams 117.3 miles on course 214°. 270°, speed 17 knots.
Required: (1) Difference of latitude, (2) departure, by Required: The 2000 DR position, by parallel sailing.
plane sailing. Answer: 2000 DR: L 44°36.3'N, λ 33°05.7'W.
Answers: (1) l 97.2’S, (2) p 65.6 mi. W.
Example: A ship at lat. 33°53.3'S, long. 18°23.1'E,
Example: A steamer is bound for a port 173.3 miles leaving Cape Town, heads for a destination
south and 98.6 miles east of the vessel’s position near Ambrose Light, lat. 40°27.1'N, long.
Required: (1) Course, (2) distance, by plane sailing. 73°49.4'W.
Answers: (1) C 150.4°; (2) D 199.4 mi. by computa- Required: (1) Course and (2) distance, by Mercator
tion, 199.3 mi. by traverse table. sailing.
Answers: (1) C 310.9°; (2) D 6,811.5 mi. by computa-
Example: A ship steams as follows: course 359°, dis- tion, 6,812.8 mi. by traverse table.
tance 28.8 miles; course 006°, distance 16.4
miles; course 266°, distance 4.9 miles; course Example: A ship at lat. 15°03.7'N, long. 151°26.8'E
144°, distance 3.1 miles; course 333°, distance steams 57.4 miles on course 035°.
35.8 miles; course 280°, distance 19.3 miles. Required: (1) Latitude and (2) longitude of the point of
Required: (1) Course, (2) distance, by traverse sailing. arrival, by Mercator sailing.
Answers: (1) C 334.4°, (2) D 86.1 mi. Answers: (1) L 15°50.7'N; (2) λ 152°00.7'E.