1.

1 Introduction to plan and conduct a passage and determine position

1.1.1.1 Knowledge and understanding the definitions related to earth

1.1.1.1.1 Shape of the Earth

The earth is not a true sphere. The earth rotates on its axis and revolves in its orbit
around the sun. The above motions are the reason why the other celestial bodies
have apparent motions. For most navigational purposes, the earth can be considered
a sphere. However, like the other planets, the earth is approximately an oblate
spheroid, or ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at the poles and bulged at the equator.
The polar diameter is less than the equatorial diameter, and
the meridians are slightly elliptical, rather than circular.
Radius of the earth: -
Equatorial = 6378.16 km
Polar = 6356.77 km
Difference = 21.39 km

1.1.1.1.2 Definitions

Axis of the Earth

The axis of the earth is the diameter about which it rotates.
Earth’s rotation is the rotation Of Planet Earth around its
own axis. Earth rotates Eastward, in pro grade motion. As
viewed from the North Pole star Polaris, Earth turns
counterclockwise.

The geographic poles of the earth

The geographic poles of the earth are the two points where the axis meets the Earth’s
surface. The earth rotates about its axis once each day. This rotation carries each
point on the Earth’s surface towards East.
West is the direction 180°from East; North is the direction 90° to the left of East and
South the direction 90° to the right of the East. The two poles of the earth designated
North Pole and South Pole accordingly.

Great Circle
Great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the
plane of which passes through the centre of the Sphere.
There is only one great circle through any two points on
the sphere’s surface, except if the points are at the two
ends of the diameter when an infinite number of great
circles are possible. A great circle is the longest line that
cans be drawn around the earth. A segment of a great
circle is the shortest distance between two points on the
earth surface.
Small Circle
Small circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the
plane of which does not pass through the center of the
Sphere.

Equator
The equator is a great circle on the Surface of the earth,
the plane of which is perpendicular to the earth’s axis.
The Equator divides the earth into the north and the
south hemispheres. Latitudes are measured North or
south From the Equator.

Parallels of Latitude
Parallels of Latitude are small circles on the earth’s surface, the planes of which are
parallel the plane of the Equator.
It is designated east (E) or west (W) to indicate the direction of measurement.

Prime Meridian
Prime meridian is the meridian which passes through
Greenwich. The other meridians are named East or West from
the prime meridian.

Meridian
Meridians are semi-great circle on the Earth, joining the two
poles. The other half of the same great circle forms yet
another meridian. All meridians intersect the equator and
parallels of latitude at 90° since Meridians join the poles, all meridians run North-
South
Latitude of a place
Latitude (Lat.) of a place is the angular distance from
the equator, measured northward or southward
along a meridian from 0° at the equator to 90° at the
poles.
It is designated north (N) or south (S) to indicate the
direction of measurement.

Longitude of a place
Longitude (Long.) of a place is the angular distance
between the prime meridian and the meridian of a
point on the earth, measured eastward or westward
from the prime meridian through 180°.

Difference in Latitude (D’Lat) The

D’lat between two places is the arc of
meridian or angle at the centre of the
earth contained between the parallels
of latitude through the two places.
D’lat is named North or South
according to the direction from the
first place to the second.

Difference in Longitude (D’ long)

The D’long between two places is the shorter arc of the equator or the smaller angle
at the poles contained between the meridians through the Two places. D’long is
named East or West According to the direction from the first place to the second
place.

The mean latitude

The mean latitude between two latitudes is the arithmetic means between them
Nautical Mile
The nautical mile at any place is the length of the arc meridian subtending an angle
of 1’ at the centre of curvature of that place.
It may also be define as the length of a meridian between two geographic latitudes
which differ by 1’ that is 1’ of d’lat.

Distance on the surface of the earth.

A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the planet Earth. If you were to
cut the Earth in half at the equator, you could pick up one of the halves and look at
the equator as a circle. You could divide that circle into 360 degrees. You could then
divide a degree into 60 minutes. A minute of arc on the planet Earth is 1 nautical
mile. This unit of measurement is used by all nations for air and sea travel.

The geographical mile is a unit of length determined by 1 minute of arc along the
Earth's equator.

A cable length or length of cable is a nautical unit of measure equal to one tenth of
a nautical mile or approximately 100 fathoms. The unit is named after the length of
a ship's anchor cable in the Age of Sail.

A knot is a unit of measure for speed. If you are traveling at a speed of 1 nautical
mile per hour, you are said to be traveling at a speed of 1 knot.

A kilometer is also defined using the planet Earth as a standard of distance. If you
were to take the Earth and cut it in half along a line passing from the North Pole
through Paris, and then measure the distance of the curve running from the North
Pole to the equator on that circle, and then divide that distance by 10,000, you would
have the traditional unit for the kilometer as defined in 1791 by the French Academy
of Sciences.

A nautical mile is 1,852 meters, or 1.852 kilometers. In the English measurement

system, a nautical mile is 1.1508 miles, or 6,076 feet.
To travel around the Earth at the equator, you would have to travel (360 * 60) 21,600
nautical miles, 24,857 miles or 40,003 kilometers.

Knot
A Knot is a unit of speed (no definite directional vector) or velocity represents a speed
of ONE NAUTICAL MILE PER HOUR

Thorough knowledge of and ability to use nautical charts, and publications,

such as sailing directions, tide tables, notice to mariners, radio navigational
warnings and ship’s routeing information

1.1.1.2 KNOWLEDGE OF NAUTICAL CHARTS AND THEIR APPLICATION

1.1.1.2.1 Demonstrates basic knowledge of chart projections
NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS
A chart is a representation of the curved shape of the earth on a flat surface.
Whenever this is attempted a certain amount of distortion is unavoidable.
The form of the distortion would take depends on the type of projection used. As long
as the distortion inherent in a particular projection has only a minimum effect upon
the use to which the chart is put to, then such projection could be selected for that
purpose. The projection selected for navigational chart is the Mercator’s projection
(Cylindrical Projection)

1.1.1.2.2 Identifies the Mercator and gnomonic charts projection and

understands the principles of its constructions

Mercator’s Projection
Imagine a transparent globe with all latitudes and longitudes marked in dark ink and
with a source of light placed in the Centre. Imagine also a paper rolled in Cylinder
fashion tangential to the equatorial plane of the globe. Now observe the shadows cast
by the parallels of latitudes and longitudes on the paper. If this paper was a
photographic this would print these shadows on the paper and when the paper is
unrolled, we have the “Mercator Chart”

2.1.1 Natural scale

Construction of Mercator chart

It will be observed here that all meridians appear as equidistant parallel lines and all
parallel of latitudes also appear as parallel lines at right angles to the meridians, but
at distances further and further away as we approach the poles.
The very fact that all meridians are shown as parallel lines, it becomes obvious that
the departure in any latitude has been automatically stretched out till it becomes
D’long.
Since D’long = Dep x Sec Lat; E/W distance on the chart has been increased by the
Secant of latitude in which it occurs on the earth. In order that all angles and
distances can be shown correctly in a given area.
If the E/W distances are increased by secant of latitude it is obvious that the N/S
distance also have to be increased by the same ratio.
N/S measurements being latitudes on the chart, latitude scale is increased by the
secant of latitude.
Distance apart between equal D’longs being constant, the longitude scale on the
Mercator’s chart is constant.
1. Lat scale = Longitude Scale x Sec Mean Lat.
2. Lat Scale = Long Scale x DMP
(No. of minutes of longitude in the scale of longitude)

Advantages of Mercator’s Chart

1. Rhumb lines can be represented as straight lines.
2. Courses and bearings can be readily drawn and can be transferred from one
part of the chart to the other without any loss of accuracy.
3. Distances can be readily measured as the scale of latitude is also the scale of
distances.
4. All positions on the chart are correctly represented in their relative positions
as they appear on the earth.

Disadvantages of Mercator’s Chart

1. GC courses cannot be readily drawn.
2. Mercator’s charts of the Polar Regions cannot be produced, as the distortion
become excessive.
3. Areas of land masses appear to be deceptive

Gnomonic Chart
Imagine a transparent globe with all latitudes and longitudes marked in dark ink and
with a source of light placed in the center.
Hold a sheet of paper flat and tangential to the surface of the globe, at one of the
poles and observe the shadows of parallel of Lat and Meridians on this sheet of paper.
If this paper was a photographic this would print these shadows on the paper as a
gnomonic chart.
On polar gnomonic charts, all meridians would appear as a straight lines crossing
each other at the pole, which is the tangent point.
The parallels of latitudes will appear as concentric circles with the pole as the center,
but with increasing radii as you go further away from the pole.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Gnomonic Charts
Advantages of Gnomonic Chart
1. All areas of the world including Polar Regions can be represented on a gnomonic
chart.
2. GC courses are easily laid off as straight lines.
3. Lats and longs can be readily lifted off the chart.

Disadvantages of Gnomonic Chart

1. RL courses and bearings cannot be laid off easily as they appear curved.
2. Distances cannot be readily measured.
3. Courses, bearings and position lines cannot be transferred from one part of the
chart to another
4. No compass roses are shown on the chart, as the azimuths are correct only at the
tangent point.

Planning chart
These charts are prepared on a very small scale, covering large portions of the globe
e.g. Indian ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. On such charts, only the outstanding coastal
features and important ports etc. are shown.
These charts are used for planning and executing long voyages across the oceans
and are obviously unsuitable for coastal navigation.
Electronic charts

Demonstrates knowledge of electronic charts

An electronic navigational chart or ENC is an official database created by a national

hydrographic office for use with an Electronic Chart Display and Information System
(ECDIS). An electronic chart must conform to standards stated in the International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO) Publication S-57 before it can be certified as an
ENC. Only ENCs can be used within ECDIS to meet the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) performance standard for ECDIS.
• Electronic chart display system
An electronic chart display system is a general term for all electronic equipment that
is capable of displaying a vessel’s position on a chart image on a screen.
There are two classes of electronic chart display systems. The first is an ECDIS
(Electronic Chart Display and Information System), which can meet IMO/SOLAS chart
carriage requirements. The second is an ECS (Electronic Chart System), which can
be used to assist navigation, but does not meet IMO/SOLAS chart carriage
requirements.

1.1.1.2.3 Describe the requirements of a chart appropriate for marine

navigation.

The charts or ECDIS referred to in Regulation 19.2.1.4 must be of such a scale and
contain sufficient detail as clearly to show;
i) All navigational marks which may be used by a ship when navigating the waters
which are covered by the chart;
ii) All known dangers affecting those waters; and
iii) Information concerning any ships' routing and ship reporting measures applicable
to those waters.
iv) All charts and publications must be of the latest obtainable edition and be kept
up to date from the latest relevant obtainable notices to mariners and radio
navigational warnings

1.1.1.2.4 Defines ‘natural scale’ of a chart.

Natural scale
Natural scale is the relationship between the actual length of something on the Earth
and the length by which that thing is shown on the chart
(For example: 1:193.000 -1 cm on the chart represents 193000 cm on earth)
Scale of latitude and longitude
On a Mercator chart 1’ of D’ lat represents 1 Nautical mile and therefore latitudes
scale can be used to measure distance.
Meridian Parts (MP)
The meridian parts for any Latitude are the length of a meridian between the equator
and that latitude on Mercator chart measured in units of longitude scale.
That is number one minute of longitude scale that can be placed along the meridian
between the equator and that Latitude.
DMP (Difference in meridian parts)
DMP between two latitudes, the length of meridian between those two latitudes on a
Mercator chart in units of longitude Scale.
1.1.1.2.5 Definitions

Title of the chart

The Title gives a description of the area covered by the chart. For example: "The
Mediterranean Sea".

Number of the chart

Different chart types of the same area can be distinguished by the chart's number.

Sounding and chart datum

The tidal datum to which soundings and drying heights on a chart are referred.

Chart sounding datums are also used as reference for heights (lighthouses,
mountains, bridges). Multiple datums can be used in one chart: L.A.T for soundings
and M.L for heights.
Natural scale
Natural scale is the relationship between the actual length of something on the Earth
and the length by which that thing is shown on the chart
(For example: 1:193.000 -1 cm on the chart represents 193000 cm on earth)
Date of publication
The date of publication along with the name of the Hydrographer to the Admiralty or
Government authority is printed at the bottom, in the middle just outside the margin.
Recent publication would mean a more reliable chart, incorporating all corrections,
large and small, up to that date

Date of printing
This is shown as the number of the day in the year, printed at the top right hand
corner, outside the margin e.g. 335.02. This means that the chart was printed on the
335” day of 2002.

Small correction
As stated earlier, various Hydrographic Departments issue “Notices to Mariners”
which carry the corrections to their nautical publications. Thus Notices to Mariners
also contain “small correction” which has to be incorporated on the charts which are
already printed. Each small correction is issued as Notice to Mariner (which is
numbered).

For example, small correction, 1998 - 1235, 1999 — 1128 mean Notice to Mariner
No. 1235 of 1998 and Notice to Mariner No. 1128 of 1999 respectively and they refer
to the corrections made on that chart vide those notices

1.1.1.3 CHART DATUM AND ITS APPLICATION

Datum is a model used for calculating the location of the Earth's center. This center
calculation is used as a reference point in establishing coordinate locations, such as
latitude and longitude, on the Earth's surface.

Explains WGS 84 system

WGS84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and geodetic
datum. WGS84 is based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that
describe the Earth's size, shape, and gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS84 is the
standard U.S. Department of Defense definition of a global reference system for
geospatial information and is the reference system for the Global Positioning System
(GPS).

1.1.1.3.1 DIRECTIONS ON THE EARTH SURFACE

Directions on the earth surface are measured from the true north and express with
three-degree notation. It can be measured either by gyro or magnetic compass.

Three-figure notification
Imagine that you are in the middle of the ocean. You are lost and you cannot see any
land.
You radio for help and are told to turn 125° clockwise. But 125° from where? Which
direction should you face in the first place?
One sensible idea is to start by facing north. This is the way that 3-figure bearings
work.

Always start by facing north, and always move in a clockwise direction.

Angles of less than 100° are written with a '0' in front, to make them a 3-figure
bearing. For example, 060°, 021°.
Finding the bearing of A from B
Here is an example. Imagine that you are at point B. You need to travel to point A.
On which bearing should you travel?

1. Start by facing north.

2. Move clockwise to face A.
3. Measure the clockwise angle between the north line and the line AB.

Quadratic Notification
• In this system, the bearing of survey lines are measured with respect to north line
or south line whichever is the nearest to the given survey line and either in clockwise
direction or in anticlockwise direction.
• The bearing of lines which fall in 1st and 4th Quadrant are measured with respect
to north line is nearer than south line, and bearing of lines fall in 2nd and 3rd
quadrants are measured from south line as south is the nearer line. The surveyor’s
compass measures the bearing of lines in the quadrant system.

1.1.1.3.2 DIRETION INDICATED BY THE GYRO COMPASS

Directions can be measured by the gyro compass. If the direction is measured by the
gyro compass. It gives true course or bearing after applying the gyro error.

1.1.1.3.3 DIRETION INDICATED BY THE MAGNATIC COMPASS

Directions can be measured by the magnetic compass. If the direction is measured
by the magnetic compass. It gives true course or bearing after applying the variation
and deviation.

1.1.1.3.4 DIRETION OF THE SHIP HEAD INDICATED BY THE GYRO COMPASS

Directions of the ships head can be measured by the gyro compass. If the ship head
is measured by the gyro compass. It gives the gyro heading.
1.1.1.3.5 DIRETION OF THE SHIP HEAD INDICATED BY THE MAGNETIC
COMPASS
Directions of the ships head can be measured by the magnetic compass. If the ship
head is measured by the compass. It gives the magnetic heading. It can be converted
in to true heading after applying the variation and the Deviation.

1.1.1.4 COMPASS CORRECTIONS

1.1.1.4.1 Defines true, magnetic and compass north

• True North:
This refers to the geographical North Pole. This is a physical pole since the axis
of the earth passes through the same. All charts are aligned to this pole and the
co-ordinate system refers to this as the North Pole.

• Magnetic North:
This is the south-seeking pole of the earth when considered as a giant magnet. All
magnetic compasses point to this pole as North. The physical and the magnetic north
pole do not coincide. The magnetic pole shifts over time as the earth cools down and
also due to other various reasons. The physical pole remains stationary.
• Compass North:
This takes into account both variation and deviation experienced by the compass
while pointing the direction of North. It is not possible to have two ships compass
point at the same direction as North.

1.1.1.4.2 Define the deviation and variation

VARIATION
Variation is the angle between the true and the magnetic meridian.

DEVIATION
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the north and south line of compass
is known as the Deviation.
1.1.1.4.3 Finds deviation and variation from tables and charts
A card posted in a holder near the magnetic compass, on which there is recorded th
e difference between the readings ofthe compass and the correct geomagnetic direc
tions; these errors (deviations) are given for at least the four cardinalpoints; someti
mes the card lists the compass bearings to be flown when it is desired to fly corresp
onding magnetic headings.

Magnetic observations made by

explorers in subsequent decades
showed however that these
suggestions were true. But it took until
the early nineteenth century, to
pinpoint the magnetic north pole
somewhere in Arctic Canada (78° N ,
104° W). From then on the angle
between the true North and
the Magnetic North could be
precisely corrected for. This correction
angle is called magnetic variation or
declination.

The correction for magnetic variation

for your location is shown on the
nearest! Nautical chart's compass
rose. In this example we find a
variation of 4° 15' W in 2009, with an indicated annual correction of 0° 08' E. Hence,
in 2011 this variation is estimated to be 3° 59', almost 4° West. This means that if
we sail 90° on the chart (the true course), the compass would read 94°.

Another example: let's say the compass rose gives a variation of 2° 50' E in 2007,
with a correction of 0° 04' E per year. In 2009 this variation is estimated to be 2°
58', almost 3° East. Now, if we sail 90° on the chart, the compass would read 87°.
1.1.1.4.4 Define the compass error
The compass error is the algebraic sum of the deviation and the variation.
• The resultant of the variation and the deviation is called the compass error
• Compass error thus is the angle between the compass needle on board the
ship and the true meridian and is computed by finding the algebraic sum of
the variation and deviation.

1.1.1.4.5 Calculates true course from compass course

Given: Compass Course - 110 and on this course the deviation is 3E, the chart
shows a Variation of 9W, to find the True Course.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 3E, this becomes a combined error of
6W. Or we may say that the compass error is 6W.
Now using the quote:
‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’
We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than
the True.
So, the True course would be less than the compass course by 6. The True course
therefore would be - 104
If we do this step by step then:
Compass Course - 110
Deviation - 3E
Magnetic Course - 113 (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic
is more so add)
Variation - 9W
True Course - 104 (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)

1.1.1.4.6 Calculates compass course from true course

Given: True Course - 110 and on this course the deviation is 3E, the chart shows a
Variation of 9W, to find the Compass Course.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 3E, this becomes a combined error of
6W. Or we may say that the compass error is 6W.
Now using the quote:
‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’
We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than
the True.
So, the Compass course would be greater than the True course by 6. The Compass
course therefore would be - 116
If we do this step by step then:
True Course - 110
Variation - 9W
Magnetic Course - 119 (Error West Compass Best, so Compass in this case
Magnetic is more so add)
Deviation - 3E
Compass Course - 116 (Error East Compass Least, so Compass is less, so
subtract)

1.1.1.4.7 Applies compass error to the ship’s head and compass bearings to
convert to true bearing and true heading
Given: Compass Course - 120 and on this course the deviation is 4E, the chart
shows a Variation of 9W, to find the True Course.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 4E, this becomes a combined error of
5W. Or we may say that the compass error is 5W.
Now using the quote:
‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’
We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than
the True.
So, the True course would be less than the compass course by 5. The True course
therefore would be - 115
If we do this step by step then:
Compass Course - 120
Deviation - 4E
Magnetic Course - 124 (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic
is more so add)
Variation - 9W
True Course - 115 (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)
1.1.1.5 DISTANCES

1.1.1.5.1 Describe the approximate polar and equatorial circumference of

the earth.

The radius of Earth at the equator is 6,378 kilometers, according to NASA's Goddard
Space Flight Center. However, Earth is not quite a sphere. The planet's rotation
causes it to bulge at the equator. Earth's polar radius is 6,357 km — a difference of
21 km.

Using those measurements, the equatorial circumference of Earth is about 40,075

km. However, from pole-to-pole — the meridional circumference — Earth is only
40,008 km around. This shape, caused by the flattening at the poles, is called an
oblate spheroid.
1.1.1.5.2 Demonstrates how to measure the distance between two
positions on a Mercator chart

Using dividers and the latitude scale on your

nautical chart, you are able to measure distance in
nautical miles. (Remember; do not use longitudes
to measure distance. Longitude lines converge at
the poles and the distance between them changes
relative to your position on the earth.)

One minute equals one nautical mile. Examine the

scale of your chart. In these examples, our chart
is in degrees and minutes.

Place one point of the dividers at position A and

the other point at position B. Then, maintaining the spread, measure the distance
using the latitude scale. In this case, the distance is 15 minutes or 15 nautical miles.
Always use the latitude scale located in the same horizontal region that you are
measuring.

1.1.1.6 Position lines and positions

1.1.1.6.1 Defines a position
A position on the Earth’s surface is expressed by reference to the plane of the equator
and the plane of the prime meridian. The latitude of a place (also called the geodetic,
geographical or true latitude) is the angle which the perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface at the place makes with the plane of the equator. It is measured from 0° to
90° north or south of the equator. Figure shows a meridional section of the spheroid.
The latitude of point M is the angle MLE (Ɵ), where L is the point of intersection of
the perpendicular to the Earth’s surface at M and the plane of the equator OE. Planes
parallel to the plane of the equator joining all places of the same latitude are known
as parallels of latitude. They are also known as small circles

1.1.1.6.2 Gives the radar distance off a charted object and plots its position
circle on a chart
• Here shows two simultaneous distance off from two different point of interest

• The Radar distance off from a Lt. Ho., once the distance off has been noted the
navigator may draw a circle of position on the chart, the centre of the circle being
the point of interest. All ships with the same distance off will be on the position
circle, and a ship will not be able to determine her position unless another position
circle is drawn from another charted radar target or a bearing of the point of
interest is also taken.

1.1.1.6.3 Plots a position on the chart from simultaneous cross bearings and
from bearing and distance off
PLOTS THE ON THE CHART BY SIMULTANEOUS CROSS BEARING
• The most common means of fixing a vessel in earlier times and even today without
the assistance of Radar is by taking three bearings and crossing them to obtain
the ships position.
• The only requirement in this type of fixing is the separation angle between the
points taken up for use.
• If the angle between any two points is close to 90° then the fix may be considered
to have a higher accuracy than if the intersecting angles are less than 90°. As the
intersecting angles become lesser than 90° the fix accuracy decreases.
• Points that may be taken up are the obvious choices like Light Houses, beacons
etc. Also points, which may be taken up, are edge of land if sharp and the edge
is a cliff, conspicuous hilltops. Buoys are not suitable for accurate fixing since a
buoy at close range swings somewhat and may also have drifted slightly.
• When plotting on the chart the small circle at the base of the beacon or buoy is
the reference point from which to draw the bearing line.

1.1.1.6.4 Explains the methods used to obtain simultaneous cross bearings

with least error
• The most common means of fixing a vessel in earlier times and even today without
the assistance of Radar is by taking three bearings and crossing them to obtain
the ships position.
• The only requirement in this type of fixing is the separation angle between the
points taken up for use.
• If the angle between any two points is close to 90° then the fix may be considered
to have a higher accuracy than if the intersecting angles are less than 90°. As the
intersecting angles become lesser than 90° the fix accuracy decreases.
• Points that may be taken up are the obvious choices like Light Houses, beacons
etc. Also points, which may be taken up, are edge of land if sharp and the edge
is a cliff, conspicuous hilltops. Buoys are not suitable for accurate fixing since a
buoy at close range swings somewhat and may also have drifted slightly.
• When plotting on the chart the small circle at the base of the beacon or buoy is
the reference point from which to draw the bearing line.

1.1.1.6.5 Plots position line straight line, and circle

• Observe the true bearing from a fixed object.

• Observe the distance from the same object by radar or any other similar
method.
• Plot the bearing and the range in the chart.
• The point which the both intersect is the position of the vessel.
1.1.1.6.6 Determines a position by a combination of bearing, distance and
the methods in the above objective

1.1.1.6.7 Finds a position by simultaneous bearings of two objects

• Observe the bearing from a fixed object.
• Observe another bearing from another object at the same time.
• Plot the both bearings on the chart and the intersection point will be the ship’s
position for the given time.

1.1.1.7 SAILINGS
1.1.1.7.1 Defines ‘true course’ and ‘rhumb line’
True Course
Is the course of a ship or airplane measured with respect to true North

Rhumb Line

It is an imaginary line on the earth's surface cutting

all meridians at the same angle. It follows a path
with constant bearing as measured relative
to true or magnetic north. A Rhumb line or
Loxodrome is a line on the Earth's surface, crossing
all meridians at the same angle. It can thus be seen
that the rhumb line is the most convenient track to
follow as the course of the ship remains constant for
the entire passage.
The Equator, all parallel of latitude and meridians are particular cases of rhumb lines,
as the course along the first two is always 090° or 270° and the course along any
meridian is always 000° or 180°. On the surface of the Earth, all other rhumb lines
will be curves spiraling towards the pole of the hemisphere. This is so because on the
Earth the meridians converge towards the poles.

1.1.1.7.2 Defines ‘departure’ and states the relationship to difference of

longitude
Departure
The departure between two places is the east-west distance between them in nautical
miles.
When the two places are on the same latitude the departure is the distance between
them along their parallel of latitude. This fact is used in parallel sailing problems.

1.1.1.7.3 Explains the relationship between departure and difference of

longitude in cases involving a change of latitude, by using mean latitude

dep = cos latitude x d'long

If the two points are not on same latitude, the mean latitude can be used.

1.1.1.7.4 Drive the plane sailing formula

Plane sailing is sailing along a rhumb line from one position to another, which is not
situated on the same latitude.
When the vessel sails along any rhumb line, except a meridian or a parallel of latitude;
as an artifice, the d'lat, departure and distance may be considered as the three sides
of a plane right angled triangle. The angle opposite the side, which represents the
departure, would then represent the course.