HCI unit II (1)

UNIT - II
The graphical user interface – popularity of graphics, the concept of direct manipulation, graphical
system, Characteristics, Web user – Interface popularity, characteristics- Principles of user interface.
Design process – Human interaction with computers, importance of human characteristics human
consideration, Human interaction speeds, and understanding business junctions.
INTRODUCTION
Human–computer interaction (HCI), alternatively man–machine interaction (MMI) or

computer– human interaction (CHI) is the study of interaction between people (users) and
computers.
• With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really effective and usable
interfaces and screens.
DEFINITION
• "Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and
implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major
phenomena surrounding them."
GOALS
• A basic goal of HCI is

– to improve the interactions between users and computers
– By making computers more usable and receptive to the user's needs.
• A long term goal of HCI is
– to design systems that minimize the barrier between the human's cognitive model of what
they want to accomplish and the computer's understanding of the user's task
DEFINING THE USER INTERFACE
• User interface, design is a subset of a field of study called human-computer interaction (HCI).
• Human-computer interaction is the study, planning, and design of how people and computers work
together so that a person's needs are satisfied in the most effective way.
• HCI designers must consider a variety of factors:
o What people want and expect, physical limitations and abilities people possess, o How
information processing systems work, o What people find enjoyable and attractive.
o Technical characteristics and limitations of the computer hardware and software must
also be considered.
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• The user interface is to the part of a computer and its software that people can see, hear, touch, talk
to, or otherwise understand or direct.
• The user interface has essentially two components: input and output.
• Input is how a person communicates his / her needs to the computer.
o Some common input components are the keyboard, mouse, trackball, one's finger, and
one's voice.
• Output is how the computer conveys the results of its computations and requirements to the user.
o Today, the most common computer output mechanism is the display screen, followed by
mechanisms that take advantage of a person's auditory capabilities: voice and sound.
• The use of the human senses of smell and touch output in interface design still remain largely
unexplored.
• Proper interface design will provide a mix of well-designed input and output mechanisms that
satisfy the user's needs, capabilities, and limitations in the most effective way possible.
• The best interface is one that it not noticed, one that permits the user to focus on the information
and task at hand, not the mechanisms used to present the information and perform the task.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD DESIGN
With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really effective and usable
interfaces and screens, why do we continue to produce systems that are inefficient and
confusing or, at worst, just plain unusable? Is it because:
• We don't care?
• We don't possess common sense?
• We don't have the time?
• We still don't know what really makes good design?
• But we never seem to have time to find out what makes good design, nor to properly apply
it. After all, many of us have other things to do in addition to designing interfaces and
screens.
• So we take our best shot given the workload and time constraints imposed upon us. The
result, too often, is woefully inadequate.
• Interface and screen design were really a matter of common sense, we developers would
have been producing almost identical screens for representing the real world.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE USER INTERFACE
⮚ A well-designed interface and screen is terribly important to our users. It is their window to
view the capabilities of the system.
HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION Page 2

⮚ It is also the vehicle through which many critical tasks are presented. These tasks often
have a direct impact on an organization's relations with its customers, and its profitability.
⮚ A screen's layout and appearance affect a person in a variety of ways. If they are confusing
and inefficient, people will have greater difficulty in doing their jobs and will make more
mistakes.
⮚ Poor design may even chase some people away from a system permanently. It can also lead
to aggravation, frustration, and increased stress. The Benefits of Good Design
⮚ Poor clarity forced screen users to spend one extra second per screen.
• Almost one additional year would be required to process all screens.
• Twenty extra seconds in screen usage time adds an additional 14 person years.
⮚ The benefits of a well-designed screen have also been under experimental scrutiny for
many years.
• One researcher, for example, attempted to improve screen clarity and readability by
making screens less crowded.
• Separate items, which had been combined on the same display line to conserve space,
were placed on separate line sin stead.
• The result screen users were about 20 percent more productive with the less crowded
version.
⮚ Proper formatting of information on screens does have a significant positive effect on
performance.
• In recent years, the productivity benefits of well-designed Web pages have also been
scrutinized.
⮚ Training costs are lowered because training time is reduced.
⮚ Support line costs are lowered because fewer assist calls are necessary.
⮚ Employee satisfaction is increased because aggravation and frustration are reduced.
⮚ Ultimately, that an organization's customers benefit because of the improved service they
receive.
⮚ Identifying and resolving problems during the design and development process also has
significant economic benefits
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⮚ How many screens are used each day in our technological world?
⮚ How many screens are used each day in your organization? Thousands? Millions
⮚ Imagine the possible savings. Proper screen design might also, of course, lower the costs of
replacing "broken" PCs.
INTRODUCTION OF THE GRAPHICAL USER

INTERFACE
• The Xerox systems, Altus and STAR, introduced the mouse and pointing and selecting as the
primary human-computer communication method.
• The user simply pointed at the screen, using the mouse as an intermediary.
• These systems also introduced the graphical user interface as we know it a new concept was
born, revolutionizing the human-computer interface.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SCREEN DESIGN
• While developers have been designing screens since a cathode ray tube display was first
attached to a computer, more widespread interest in the application of good design principles
to screens did not begin to emerge until the early 1970s, when IBM introduced its 3270
cathode ray tube text-based terminal.
• A 1970s screen often resembled the one pictured in Figure.
It usually consisted of many fields (more than are illustrated here) with very cryptic and
often unintelligible captions.

• It was visually cluttered, and often possessed a command field that challenged the user to
remember what had to be keyed into it.
• Ambiguous messages often required referral to a manual to interpret.
• Effectively using this kind of screen required a great deal of practice and patience.
• Most early screens were monochromatic, typically presenting green text on black
backgrounds.
• At the turn of the decade guidelines for text-based screen design were finally made widely
available and many screens began to take on a much less cluttered look through concepts
such as grouping and alignment of elements, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
• User memory was supported by providing clear and meaningful field captions and by listing
commands on the screen, and enabling them to be applied, through function keys. Messages
also became clearer.
• These screens were not entirely clutter-free, however. Instructions and reminders to the user
had to be inscribed on the screen in the form of prompts or completion aids such as the codes
PR and Sc.
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•
• Multiple properties of elements were also provided, including many different font sizes
and styles, line thicknesses, and colors.
• The entry field was supplemented by a multitude of other kinds of controls, including list
boxes, drop-down combination boxes, spin boxes, and so forth.
• These new controls were much more effective in supporting a person's memory, now simply
allowing for selection from a list instead of requiring a remembered key entry.
• Completion aids disappeared from screens, replaced by one of the new listing controls.
Screens could also be simplified, the much more powerful computers being able to quickly
present a new screen.
• In the 1990s, our knowledge concerning what makes effective screen design continued to
expand. Coupled with ever-improving technology, the result was even greater improvements
in the user-computer screen interface as the new century dawned.
THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
• A user interface is a collection of techniques and mechanisms to interact with something.
• In a graphical interface the primary interaction mechanism is a pointing device of some kind.
• This device is the electronic equivalent to the human hand. What the user interacts with is a
collection of elements referred to as objects.
• They can be seen, heard, touched, or otherwise perceived.
• Objects are always visible to the user and are used to perform tasks.
• They are interacted with as entities independent of all other objects.
• People perform operations, called actions, on objects. The operations include accessing and
modifying objects by pointing, selecting, and manipulating. All objects have standard resulting
behaviors.
THE POPULARITY OF GRAPHICS
• A graphical screen bore scant resemblance to its earlier text-based colleagues. • Older
text-based screen possessed a one dimensional
• Graphic screens assumed a three-dimensional look.
• Controls appeared to rise above the screen and move when activated.
• Information could appear, and disappear, as needed.
• Text could be replaced by graphical images called icons.
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• These icons could represent objects or actions
• selection fields such as radio buttons, check boxes, list boxes, and palettes coexisted with the
reliable old text entry field
• More sophisticated text entry fields with attached or dropdown menus of.
• Objects and actions were selected through use of pointing mechanisms.
• Increased computer power.
• User's actions to be reacted to quickly, dynamically, and meaningfully.
• WIMP interface: windows, icons, menus, and pointers.
• Graphic presentation is much more effective than other presentation methods.
• Properly used, it reduces the requirement for perceptual and mental information recoding and
reorganization, and also reduces the memory loads.
• It permits faster information transfer between computers and people by permitting more visual
comparisons of amounts, trends, or relationships; more compact representation of
information;
• Graphics also can add appeal or charm to the interface and permit greater customization to
create a unique corporate or organization style.
GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
• Reduce the memory requirements.

• More effective use of one's information.
• Dramatically reduce system learning requirements.
• Experience indicates that for many people they have done all these things.
ADVANTAGES
• Symbols recognized faster than text

• Faster learning
• Faster use and problem solving
• Easier remembering
• More natural
• Exploits visual/spatial cues
• Fosters more concrete thinking
• Provides context
• Fewer errors
• Increased feeling of control
• Immediate feedback
• Predictable system responses
• Easily reversible actions

• Less anxiety concerning use
• More attractive
• May consume less space
• Replaces national languages
• Easily augmented with text displays
• Smooth transition from command language system
DISADVANTAGES
• Greater design complexity.

• Learning still necessary
• Replaces national languages
• Easily augmented with text displays
• Smooth transition from command language system
• Lack of experimentally derived design guidelines  use a pointing device may also have to
be learned
• Working domain is the present
• Human comprehension limitations
• Window manipulation requirements
• Production limitations
• Few tested icons exist
• Inefficient for touch typists
• Inefficient for expert users
• Not always the preferred style of interaction
• Not always fastest style of interaction
• Increased chances of clutter and confusion
• May consume more screen space
• Hardware limitations
THE CONCEPT OF DIRECT MANIPULATION
The system is portrayed as an extension of the real world: It is assumed that a person is already
familiar with the objects and actions in his or her environment of interest.
The system simply replicates them and portrays them on a different medium, the screen.
A person has the power to access and modify these objects, among which are windows.
A person is allowed to work in a familiar environment and in a familiar way, focusing on the data,
not the application and tools.
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The physical organization of the system, which most often is unfamiliar, is hidden from view and is
not a distraction.
Continuous visibility of objects and actions: Like one's desktop, objects are continuously visible.
Reminders of actions to be performed are also obvious, labeled buttons replacing complex syntax
and command names.
Cursor action and motion occurs in physically obvious and natural ways. One problem in direct
manipulation, however, is that there is no direct analogy on the desk for all necessary windowing
operations.
A piece of paper on one's desk maintains a constant size, never shrinking or growing. Windows
can do both. Solving this problem required embedding a control panel, a familiar concept to most
people, in a window's border.
This control panel is manipulated, not the window itself. Actions are rapid and incremental with
visible display of results; the results of actions are immediately displayed visually on the screen in
their new and current form.
Auditory feedback may also be provided. The impact of a previous action is quickly seen, and the
evolution of tasks is continuous and effortless. Incremental actions are easily reversible.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

A graphical system possesses a set of defining concepts. Included are sophisticated visual
Presentation, pick-and click interaction, a restricted set of interface options, visualization, object
orientation, extensive use of a person's recognition memory, and concurrent performance of
functions.
Sophisticated Visual Presentation:
• Visual presentation is the visual aspect of the interface. It is what people see on the screen.
• The sophistication of a graphical system permits displaying lines, including drawings and icons.
• It also permits the displaying of a variety of character fonts, including different sizes and styles.
• The display of 16 million or more colors is possible on some screens. Graphics also permit
animation and the presentation of photograph and motion video.
The meaningful interface elements visually presented to the user in a graphical System include
windows (primary, secondary, or dialog boxes), menus (menu bar, pull down, pop- up, cascading),

icons to represent objects such as programs or files, assorted screen-based controls (text boxes, list
boxes, combination boxes, settings, scroll bar and buttons), and a mouse pointer and cursor.
-- The objective is to reflect visually on screen the real world of the user as realistically, meaningfully,
simply, and clearly possible.
A graphical system possesses a set of defining concepts. Included are sophisticated visual
presentation, pick-and click interaction, a restricted set of interface options, visualization, object
orientation, extensive use of a person's recognition memory, and concurrent performance of functions.
Restricted Set of Interface Options: The array of alternatives available to the user is what is presented
on the screen or may be retrieved through what is presented on the screen, nothing less, and nothing more.
This concept fostered the acronym WYSIWYG.
Pick-and-Click Interaction: Elements of a graphical screen upon which some action is to be

performed must first identified.
o The motor activity required of a person to identify this element for a proposed action is commonly
referred to as pick, the signal to perform an action as cue.
o The primary mechanism for performing this pick-and-click is most often the mouse and its buttons.
o The user moves the mouse pointer to the relevant element (pick) and the action is signaled
(click).
o Pointing allows rapid selection and feedback. The hand and mind seem to work smoothly and
efficiently together.
o The secondary mechanism for performing these selection actions is the keyboard most systems
permit pick-and-click to be performed using the keyboard as well.
Visualization: Visualization is a cognitive process that allows people to understand Information that is
difficult to perceive, because it is either too voluminous or too abstract.
Presenting specialized graphic portrayals facilitates visualization.
• The best visualization method for an activity depends on what People are trying to learn from the
data.
• The goal is not necessarily to reproduce a really graphical image, but to produce one that conveys
the most relevant information.
• Effective visualizations can facilitate mental insights, increase productivity, and for faster and
more accurate use of data.

Object Orientation: A graphical system consists of objects and actions. Objects are what people see
on screen. They are manipulated as a single unit.
• Objects can be composed of sub objects. For example, an object may be a document. The
document's sub objects may be a paragraph, sentence, word, and letter.
• A collection is the simplest relationship-the objects sharing a common aspect.
• A collection might be the result of a query or a multiple selection of objects. Operations can be
applied to a collection of objects.
• A constraint is a stronger object relationship. Changing an object in a set affects some other object
in the set.
• A document being organized into pages is an example of a constraint. A composite exists when
the relationship between objects becomes so significant that the aggregation itself can be identified
as an object.
• Examples include a range of cells organized into a spreadsheet, or a collection of words organized
into a paragraph.
• A container is an object in which other objects exist. Examples include text in a document or
documents in a folder.
A container often influences the behavior of its content. It may add or suppress certain properties or
operations of objects placed within it, control access to its content, or control access to kinds of objects it
will accept. These relationships help define an object's type. Similar traits and behaviors exist in objects
of the same object type.
Another important object characteristic is persistence. Persistence is the maintenance of a state once it
is established. An object's state (for example, window size, cursor location, scroll position, and so on)
should always be automatically preserved when the user changes it.
Use of Recognition Memory: Continuous visibility of objects and actions encourages use of a person's
more powerful recognition memory. The "out of sight, out of mind" problem is eliminated
THE WEB USER INTERFACE
The expansion of the World Wide Web since the early 1990s has been truly amazing. Once simply a
communication medium for scientists and researchers, its many and pervasive tentacles have spread
deeply into businesses, organizations, and homes around the world.
Unlike earlier text-based and GUI systems that were developed and nurtured in an organization's Data
Processing and Information Systems groups, the Web's roots were sown in a market-driven society
thirsting for convenience and information.

Web interface design is essentially the design of navigation and the presentation of information. It is
about content, not data.
Proper interface design is largely a matter of properly balancing the structure and relationships of
menus, content, and other linked documents or graphics. The design goal is to build a hierarchy of menus
and pages that feels natural, is well structured, is easy to use, and is truthful.
The Web is a navigation environment where people move between pages of information, not an
application environment. It is also a graphically rich environment.
Web interface design is difficult for a number of reasons. First, its underlying design language,
HTML, was never intended for creating screens to be used by the general population.
Its scope of users was expected to be technical. HTML was limited in objects and interaction styles
and did not provide a means for presenting information in the most effective way for people.
Next, browser navigation retreated to the pre-GUI era. This era was characterized by a "command"
field whose contents had to be learned, and a navigational organization and structure that lay hidden
beneath a mostly dark and blank screen.
GUIs eliminated the absolute necessity for a command field, providing menus related to the task and
the current contextual situation.
Browser navigation is mostly confined to a "Back" and "Forward" concept, but "back-to where" and
"forward-to where" is often unremembered or unknown.
Web interface design is also more difficult because the main issues concern information Architecture
and task flow, neither of which is easy to standardize.
It is more difficult because of the availability of the various types of multimedia, and the desire of
many designers to use something simply because it is available.
It is more difficult because users are ill defined, and the user's tools so variable in nature.
The ultimate goal of a Web that feels natural, is well structured, and is easy to use will reach fruition.
THE POPULARITY OF THE WEB

While the introduction of the graphical user interface revolutionized the user interface, the Web has
revolutionized computing.
It allows millions of people scattered across the globe to communicate, access information, publish,
and be heard.

• It allows people to control much of the display and the rendering of Web pages.
• Aspects such as typography and colors can be changed, graphics turned off, and decisions made
whether or not to transmit certain data over non secure channels or whether to accept or refuse
cookies.
• Web usage has reflected this popularity. The number of Internet hosts has risen dramatically:
• In 1984, hosts online exceeded 1,000;
• In 1987, 10,000;
• In 1989,100,000,
• In 1990, 300,000;
• In 1992 hosts exceeded one million.
• Commercialization of the Internet saw even greater expansion of the growth rate. In 1993, Internet
traffic was expanding at a 341,634 percent annual growth rate. In 1996, there were nearly 10 million
hosts online and 40 million connected people (PBS Timeline).
• User control has had some decided disadvantages for some Web site owners as well.
• Users have become much more discerning about good design.
• Slow download times, confusing navigation, confusing page organization, disturbing animation, or
other undesirable site features often results in user abandonment of the site for others with a more
agreeable interface.
• People are quick to vote with their mouse, and these warnings should not go unheeded.
GUI VERSUS WEB PAGE DESIGN

• GUI and Web interface design do have similarities. Both are software designs, they are used by people,
they are interactive, they are heavily visual experiences presented through screens, and they are
composed of many similar components.
• Significant differences do exist.

CONCEPT GUI WEB
• User hardware variations limited

• User hardware characteristics well defined.
• Screens appear exactly as specified.
• User hardware variations enormous.
• Screen appearance influenced by hardware being used.
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

• User hardware variations limited
• User hardware characteristics well defined.
• Screens appear exactly as specified.
• Data and applications
•Typically created and used by known and trusted sources.

•Properties generally known.
•Typically placed into system by users or known people and organizations.
•Typically organized in a meaningful fashion.
•A notion of private and shared data exists:
• Install, configure, personalize, start, use, and upgrade programs.
• Open, use, and close data files.
• Fairly long times spent within an application. Familiarity with applications often achieved.
• Controlled and constrained by program.
• Windows, menus, controls, data, tool bars, messages, and soon.
• Many transient, dynamically appearing and disappearing.
• Presented as specified by designer. Generally standardized by toolkits and style guides
• Through menus, lists, trees, dialogs, and wizards. Not a strong and visible concept.
• Constrained by design.
• Generally standardized by toolkits and

• Style guides. User Focus • Data and applications • Information and navigation
• Enables maintenance of a better sense of context. Restricted navigation paths.
• Multiple viewable windows Interactions such as clicking menu choices, pressing buttons,
selecting list choices, and cut/copy/paste occur within context of active program.
• Nearly instantaneous.
• Typically prescribed and constrained by toolkit.
• Visual creativity allowed but difficult.
• Little significant personalization.
• Unlimited capability proportional to sophistication of hardware and software. Targeted to a
specific audience with specific tasks. Only limited by the amount of programming undertaken
to support it
• Major objective exists within and across applications. Aided by platform toolkit and design
guidelines. Universal consistency in GUI products generally created through toolkits and design
guidelines.
• Integral part of most systems and applications. Accessed through standard
mechanisms. Documentation, both online and offline,
• Usually provided.
• Personal support desk also usually provided
• Seamless integration of all applications into the platform environment a major objective.
• Toolkits and components are key elements in accomplishing this objective
• Tightly controlled in business systems, proportional to degree of willingness to invest resources
and effort
WEB
• User hardware variations enormous.

• Screen appearance influenced by hardware being used. • Information and navigation
• Full of unknown content.
• Source not always trusted.
• Often not placed onto the Web by users or known people and organizations.
• Highly variable organization.
• Privacy often suspects
• Link to a site, browse or read pages, fill out forms, register for services, participate in
transactions, download and save things.
• Movement between pages and sites very rapid. Familiarity with many sites not established.

• Infinite and generally unorganized.
• Two components, browser and page.
• Within page, any combination of text, images, audio, video, and animation.
• May not be presented as specified by the designer dependent on browser, monitor, and user
specifications.
• Little standardization
• Through links: bookmarks, and typed URLs. Significant and highly visible concept.
• Few constraints, frequently causing a lost “sense of place “Few standards.
• Typically, part of page design, fostering an lack of consistency • Poorer maintenance of a
sense of context. Single-page entities.
• Unlimited navigation paths.
• Contextual clues become limited or are difficult to find.
• Basic interaction is a single click. This can cause extreme changes in context, which may not
be noticed.
• Quite variable, depending on transmission speeds, page content, and so on. Long times can
upset the user
• Fosters a more artistic, individual, and unrestricted presentation style.
• Complicated by differing browser and display capabilities, and bandwidth limitations.
• Limited personalization available.
• Limited by constraints imposed by the hardware, browser, software, client support, and user
willingness to allow features because of response time, security, and privacy concerns
• No similar help systems.
• The little available help is built into the page. Customer service support, if provided, oriented
to product or service offered.
• Apparent for some basic functions within most Web sites (navigation, printing, and so on.)
• Sites tend to achieve individual distinction rather than integration.
• Susceptible to disruptions caused by user, telephone line and cable providers, Internet service
providers, hosting servers, and remotely accessed sites.
PRINCIPLES OF USER INTERFACE DESIGN
• An interface must really be just an extension of a person. This means that the system and its
software must reflect a person's capabilities and respond to his or her specific needs.
• It should be useful, accomplishing some business objectives faster and more efficiently than
the previously used method or tool did.
• It must also be easy to learn, for people want to do, not learn to do.
• Finally, the system must be easy and fun to use, evoking a sense of pleasure and
accomplishment not tedium and frustration.
• The interface itself should serve as both a connector and a separator

• A connector in that it ties the user to the power of the computer, and a separator in that it
minimizes the possibility of the participants damaging one another.
• While the damage the user inflicts on the computer tends to be physical (a frustrated
pounding of the keyboard), the damage caused by the computer is more psychological.
• Throughout the history of the human-computer interface, various researchers and writers have
attempted to define a set of general principles of interface design.
• What follows is a compilation of these principles. They reflect not only what we know today,
but also what we think we know today.
• Many are based on research, others on the collective thinking of behaviorists working with
user interfaces.
• These principles will continue to evolve, expand, and be refined as our experience with Gills
and the Web increases.
PRINCIPLES FOR THE XEROX STAR
• The design of the Xerox STAR was guided by a set of principles that evolved over its
lengthy development process. These principles established the foundation for graphical
interfaces.
• Displaying objects that are selectable and Mani pulable must be created.
• A design challenge is to invent a set of displayable objects that are represented
meaningfully and appropriately for the intended application.
• It must be clear that these objects can be selected, and how to select them must be
Selfevident.
• When they are selected should also be obvious, because it should be clear that the
selected object will be the focus of the next action. Standalone icons easily fulfilled this
requirement.
• The handles for windows were placed in the borders.
• Visual order and viewer focus: Attention must be drawn, at the proper time, to the
important and relevant elements of the display. Effective visual contrast between various
components of the screen is used to achieve this goal. Animation is also used to draw
attention, as is sound.
Feedback must also be provided to the user. Since the pointer is usually the focus of viewer
attention, it is a useful mechanism for providing this feedback (by changing shapes).
• Revealed structure: The distance between one's intention and the effect must be
minimized. Most often, the distance between intention and effect is lengthened as system
power increases. The relationship between intention and effect must be, tightened and
made as apparent as possible to the user. The underlying structure is often revealed
during the selection process.

• Consistency: Consistency aids learning. Consistency is provided in such areas as
element location, grammar, font shapes, styles, and sizes, selection indicators, and
contrast and emphasis techniques.
• Appropriate effect or emotional impact: The interface must provide the appropriate
emotional effect for the product and its market. Is it a corporate, professional, and secure
business system? Should it reflect the fantasy, wizardry, and bad puns of computer
games?
• A match with the medium: The interface must also reflect the capabilities of the device
on which it will be displayed. Quality of screen images will be greatly affected by a
device's resolution and color-generation capabilities.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• The design goals in creating a user interface are described below.
• They are fundamental to the design and implementation of all effective interfaces, including
GUI and We bones.
• These principles are general characteristics of the interface, and they apply to all aspects.
• The compilation is presented alphabetically, and the ordering is not intended to imply degree
of importance.
Aesthetically Pleasing
Provide visual appeal by following these presentation and graphic design principles:
• Provide meaningful contrast between screen elements.
• Create groupings.
• Align screen elements and groups.
• Provide three-dimensional representation.
• Use color and graphics effectively and simply.
Clarity
The interface should be visually, conceptually, and linguistically clear, including

• Visual elements
• Functions
• Metaphors
• Words and Text
Compatibility
Provide compatibility with the following:
- The user
- The task and job

- The Product
- Adopt the User’s Perspective
Configurability
Permit easy personalization, configuration, and reconfiguration of settings.
- Enhances a sense of control
- Encourages an active role in understanding
Comprehensibility
A system should be easily learned and understood: A user should know the following:
- What to look at
- What to do
- When to do it
- Where to do it
- Why to do it
- How to do it
The flow of actions, responses, visual presentations, and information should be in a sensible
order that is easy to recollect and place in context.
Consistency
A system should look, act, and operate the same throughout. Similar components should: - Have a
similar look.
- Have similar uses. - Operate similarly.
• The same action should always yield the same result
• The function of elements should not change.
• The position of standard elements should not change.
Control
The user must control the interaction.
- Actions should result from explicit user requests.
- Actions should be performed quickly.
- Actions should be capable of interruption or termination.
- The user should never be interrupted for errors
• The context maintained must be from the perspective of the user.
• The means to achieve goals should be flexible and compatible with the user's skills,
experiences, habits, and preferences.
• Avoid modes since they constrain the actions available to the user.
• Permit the user to customize aspects of the interface, while always providing a Proper set of
defaults
Directness
Provide direct ways to accomplish tasks.

- Available alternatives should be visible.
- The effect of actions on objects should be visible.
Flexibility
A system must be sensitive to the differing needs of its users, enabling a level and type of
performance based upon:
- Each user's knowledge and skills.
- Each user's experience.
- Each user's personal preference.
- Each user's habits.
- The conditions at that moment.
Efficiency
Minimize eye and hand movements, and other control actions.
- Transitions between various system controls should flow easily and freely.
- Navigation paths should be as short as possible.
- Eye movement through a screen should be obvious and sequential.
- Anticipate the user's wants and needs whenever possible.
Familiarity
• Employ familiar concepts and use a language that is familiar to the user.
• Keep the interface natural, mimicking the user's behavior patterns.
• Use real-world metaphors.
Forgiveness
• Tolerate and forgive common and unavoidable human errors.
• Prevent errors from occurring whenever possible.
• Protect against possible catastrophic errors.
• When an error does occur, provide constructive messages.
Predictability
• The user should be able to anticipate the natural progression of each task.
o Provide distinct and recognizable screen elements.
o Provide dues to the result of an action to be performed. • All expectations
should be fulfilled uniformly and completely.
Recovery
A system should permit:
- Commands or actions to be abolished or reversed.
- Immediate return to a certain point if difficulties arise.
Ensure that users never lose their work as a result of:
- An error on their part.

- Hardware, software, or communication problems
Responsiveness
The system must rapidly respond to the user's requests provide immediate Acknowledgment
for all user actions: - Visual.
- Textual
- Auditory.
Transparency
Permit the user to focus on the task or job, without concern for the mechanics of the interface. -
Workings and reminders of workings inside the computer should be invisible to the user.
Simplicity
Provide as simple an interface as possible. Five ways to provide simplicity:
- Use progressive disclosure, hiding things until they are needed
- Present common and necessary functions first
- Prominently feature important functions
- Hide more sophisticated and less frequently used functions.
- Provide defaults.
- Minimize screen alignment points.
- Make common actions simple at the expense of uncommon actions being made harder.
- Provide uniformity and consistency.
HUMAN INTERACTION WITH COMPUTERS

Understanding How People Interact with Computers Characteristics of computer systems, past and
present, that have caused, and are causing, people problems. We will then look at the effect these
problems have –
• Why people have trouble with computers
• Responses to poor design
• People and their tasks

Why People Have Trouble with Computers
• Extensive technical knowledge but little behavioral training.

• With its extensive graphical capabilities.
• Poorly designed interfaces.
• What makes a system difficult to use in the eyes of its user?
• Use of jargon
• Non-obvious design
• Fine distinctions
• Disparity in problem-solving strategies
• an "error-preventing" strategy
• Design inconsistency
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Typical psychological responses to poor design are:
• Confusion: Detail overwhelms the perceived structure. Meaningful patterns are difficult to
ascertain, and the conceptual model or underlying framework cannot be understood or
established.
• Annoyance: Roadblocks that prevent a task being completed, or a need from being satisfied,
promptly and efficiently lead to annoyance. Inconsistencies in design slow computer
reaction times, difficulties in quickly finding information, out dated information, and visual
screen distractions are a few of the many things that may annoy users.
• Frustration: An overabundance of annoyances, an inability to easily convey one's intentions

to the computer, or an inability to finish a task or satisfy a need can cause frustration.
Frustration is heightened if an unexpected computer response cannot be undone or if what
really took place cannot be determined: Inflexible and unforgiving systems are a major
source of frustration.
• Panic or stress: Unexpectedly long delays during times of severe or unusual pressure may
introduce panic or stress. Some typical causes are unavailable systems or long response
times when the user is operating under a deadline or dealing with an irate customer.
• Boredom: Boredom results from improper computer pacing (slow response times or long
download times) or overly simplistic jobs.

• These psychological responses diminish user effectiveness because they are severe blocks to
concentration.
--Thoughts irrelevant to the task at hand are forced to the user’s attention, and
necessary concentration is impossible.
--The result, in addition to higher error rates, is poor performance, anxiety, and
dissatisfaction Physical.
• Psychological responses frequently lead to, or are accompanied by, the following physical
reactions.
• Abandonment of the system: The system is rejected and other information sources are relied
upon. These sources must, of course, be available and the user must have the discretion to
perform the rejection.
– In business systems this is a common reaction of managerial and professional

personnel. With the Web, almost all users can exercise this option.
• Partial use of the system: Only a portion of the system's capabilities are used, usually those
operations that are easiest to perform or that provide the most benefits. Historically, this has
been the most common user reaction to most computer systems. Many aspects of many
systems often goon used.
• Indirect use of the system: An intermediary is placed between the would-be user and the
computer. Again, since this requires high status and discretion, it is another typical response
of managers or others with authority.
• Modification of the task: The task is changed to match the capabilities of the system. This is
a prevalent reaction when the tools are rigid and the problem is unstructured, as in scientific
problem solving.
• Compensatory activity: Additional actions are performed to compensate for system
inadequacies. A common example is the manual reformatting of information to match the
structure required by the computer. This is a reaction common to workers whose discretion
is limited, such as clerical personnel.
• Misuse of the system: The rules are bent to shortcut operational difficulties. This requires
significant knowledge of the system and may affect system integrity.

• Direct programming: The system is reprogrammed by its user to meet specific needs. This is
a typical response of the sophisticated worker.
• These physical responses also greatly diminish user efficiency and effectiveness. They force
the user to rely upon other information sources, to fail to use a system's complete
capabilities, or to perform time-consuming "work-around" actions
IMPORTANT HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS IN DESIGN
• Importance in design is perception, memory, visual acuity, fovea and peripheral vision,
sensory storage, information processing, learning, skill, and individual differences.
• Perception
• Proximity
• Similarity
• Matching patterns
• Succinctness
• Closure
• Unity
• Continuity
• Balance
• Expectancies
• Context
• Signals versus noise
• Memory: Memory is not the most stable of human attributes, as anyone who has
forgotten why they walked into a room, or forgotten a very important birthday, can
attest.
• -Short-term, or working, memory.
- Long-term memory
- Mighty memory
- Sensory Storage
• Mental Models: As a result of our experiences and culture, we develop mental models of
things and people we interact with.
• A mental model is simply an internal representation of a person's current understanding
of something. Usually a person cannot describe this mental mode and most often is
unaware it even exists.
• Mental models are gradually developed in order to understand something, explain
things, make decisions, do something, or interact with another person.

• Mental models also enable a person to predict the actions necessary to do things if the
action has been forgotten or has not yet beaten countered.
• Movement Control: Once data has been perceived and an appropriate action decided
upon, a response must be made.
• In many cases the response is a movement. In computer systems, movements include
such activities as pressing keyboard keys, moving the screen pointer by pushing a mouse
or rotating a trackball, or clicking a mouse button
THE IMPLICATIONS IN SCREEN DESIGN
• Learning: Learning, as has been said, is the process of encoding in long-term memory
information that is contained in short-term memory.
• It is a complex process requiring some effort on our part. Our ability to learn is important-it
clearly differentiates people from machines.
• Given enough time people can improve the performance in almost any task. Too often,
however, designers use our learning ability as an excuse to justify complex design.
• A design developed to minimize human learning time can greatly accelerate human
performance.
• People prefer to stick with what they know, and they prefer to jump in and get started.
Unproductive time spent learning is something frequently avoided.
• Skill: The goal of human performance is to perform skillfully. To do so requires linking
inputs and responses into a sequence of action. The essence of skill is performance of
actions or movements in the correct time sequence with adequate precision. It is
characterized by consistency and economy of effort.
• Economy of effort is achieved by establishing a work pace that represents optimum
efficiency.
• It is accomplished by increasing mastery of the system through such things as progressive
learning of shortcuts, increased speed, and easier access to information or data.
• Skills are hierarchical in nature, and many basic skills may be integrated to form
increasingly complex ones. Lower-order skills tend to become routine and may drop out of
consciousness.
• System and screen design must permit development of increasingly skillful performance.
• Individual Differences: In reality, there is no average user. A complicating but very
advantageous human characteristic is that we all differ-in looks, feelings, motor abilities,
intellectual abilities, learning abilities and speed, and soon.
• In a keyboard data entry task, for example, the best typists will probably be twice as fast as
the poorest and make 10 times fewer errors.

• Individual differences complicate design because the design must permit people with widely
varying characteristics to satisfactorily and comfortably learn the task or job, or use the
Website.
• In the past this has usually resulted in bringing designs down to the level of lowest abilities
or selecting people with the minimum skills necessary to perform a job.
• But technology now offers the possibility of tailoring jobs to the specific needs of people
with varying and changing learning or skill levels. Multiple versions of a system can easily
be created.
• Design must provide for the needs of all potential users
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
• The User's Knowledge and Experience

The knowledge possessed by a person, and the experiences undergone, shape the design
of the interface in many ways. The following kinds of knowledge and experiences should be
identified.
• Computer Literacy - Highly technical or experienced, moderate computer experience, or
none
• System Experience - High, moderate, or low knowledge of a particular system and its
methods of interaction
• Application Experience - High, moderate, or low knowledge of similar systems
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
• Task Experience - Other Level of knowledge of job and job tasks

• Systems Use - Frequent or infrequent use of other systems in doing job
• Education - High school, college, or advanced degree
• Reading Level - Less than 5th grade, 5th-12th, more than 12thgrade
• Typing Skill - Expert (135 WPM), skilled (90 WPM), good (55 WPM), average (40 WPM),
or "hunt and peck" (10WPM).
• Native Language or Culture- English, another, or several.
JOB/TASK/NEED
• Type of System Use - Mandatory or discretionary use of the system.

• Frequency of Use - Continual, frequent, occasional, or once-in-a-lifetime use of system.
• Task or Need importance - High, moderate, or low importance of the task being performed.
• Task Structure - Repetitiveness or predictability of tasks being automated, high, moderate,
or low.

• Social Interactions - Verbal communication with another person required or not required.
• Primary Training - Extensive or formal training, self training through manuals, or no
training.
• Turnover Rate - High, moderate, or low turnover rate for jobholders
• Job Category - Executive, manager, professional, secretary, clerk
• Lifestyle - For Web e-commerce systems, includes hobbies, recreational pursuits, and
economic status
PSYCHOLOCICAL CHARCTERISTICS
• Attitude - Positive, neutral, or negative feeling toward job or system.

• Motivation - Low, moderate, or high due to interest or fear.
• Patience - Patience or impatience expected in accomplishing goal.
• Expectations - Kinds and reasonableness.
• Stress Level - High, some, or no stress generally resulting from task performance.
• Cognitive Style - Verbal or spatial, analytic or intuitive, concrete or abstract.
PHYSICAL CHARACTRISTICS
• Age Young middle aged or elderly.

• Gender Male or Female.
• Handiness Left, right or ambidextrous.
• Disabilities Blind, defective vision, deafness, motor handicap.
HUMAN INTERACTION SPEEDS
• The speed at which people can perform using various communication methods has been
studied by a number of researchers.
• Reading: The average adult, reading English prose in the United States, has a reading speed
in the order of 250-300 words per minute. Proof reading text on paper has been found to
occur at about 200 words per minute, on a computer monitor, about 180 words per minute.
• One technique that has dramatically increased reading speeds is called Rapid Serial Visual
Presentation, or RSVP. In this technique single words are presented one at a time in the
center of a screen. New words continually replace old words at a rate set by the reader. For a
sample of people whose paper document reading speed was 342 words per minute? (With a
speed range of 143 to 540 words per minute.) Single words were presented on a screen in
sets at a speed sequentially varying ranging from 600 to 1,600 words per minute. After each
set a comprehension test was administered.

READING
• Prose text - 250-300 words per minute.

• Proof reading text on paper - 200 words per minute.
• Proofreading text on a monitor - 180 words per minute.
LISTENING
• Speaking to a computer: 150-160 words per minute.

• After recognition corrections: 105 words per minute.
KEYING
• Typewriter
Fast typist: 150 words per minute and higher Average typist: 60-70 words per
minute
• Computer
Transcription: 33 words per minute Composition: 19 words per minute
• Two finger typists
Memorized text: 37 words per minute Copying text: 27 words per minute •
Hand printing
Memorized text: 31 words per minute. Copying text: 22 words per minute.
UNDERSTAND THE BUSINESS JUNCTIONS
• Business definition and requirements analysis

--Direct methods
--Indirect methods
--Requirements collection guidelines
• Determining basic business functions
--Developing conceptual modes
--Understanding mental models
--Users new mental model
• Design standards or style guides
--Value of standards and guidelines
--Document design
--Design support and implementation
• System training and documentation
-- Training
--Documentation

DIRECT METHODS
• Individual Face-to-Face Interview

• Telephone Interview or Survey
• Traditional Focus Group
• Facilitated Team Workshop
• Observational Field Study
• User-Interface Prototyping
• Usability Laboratory Testing
• Card Sorting for Web Sites
• A technique to establish groupings of information for Websites
INDIRECT METHODS
• MIS Intermediary
• Paper Surveyor Questionnaire
• Electronic Surveyor Questionnaire
• Electronic Focus Group
• Marketing and Sales
• Support Line
• E-Mail or Bulletin Board
• User Group
• Competitor Analyses
• Trade Show
• Other Media Analysis
• System Testing
DETERMINING BASIC BUSINESS JUNCTIONS
• Major system functions are listed and described, including critical system inputs and
outputs. A flowchart of major functions is developed. The process the developer will use is
summarized as follows: Gain a complete understanding of the user's mental model based
upon:
• The user's needs and the user's profile.
• A user task analysis.
• Develop a conceptual model of the system based upon the user's mental model. This
includes:
• Defining objects.

• Developing metaphors
Interaction Styles
The concept of Interaction Styles refers to all the ways the user can communicate
or otherwise interact with the computer system. The concept belongs in the realm
of HCI or at least have its roots in the computer medium, usually in the form of a
workstation or a desktop computer. These concepts do however retain some of
their descriptive powers outside the computer medium. For example, you can talk
about menu selection (defined below) in mobile phones.
In HCI textbooks, such as Shneiderman (1997) and Preece et al. (1994), the types
of interaction styles mentioned are usually command language, form fillin, menu
selection, and direct manipulation.
26.1 Command language (or command entry)
Command language is the earliest form of interaction style and is still being used,
though mainly on Linux/Unix operating systems. These "Command prompts" are
used by (usually) expert users who type in commands and possibly some
parameters that will affect the way the command is executed. The following
screen dump shows a command prompt - in this case, the user has logged on to a
(mail) server and can use the server's functions by typing in commands.
Click to enlarge.
Figure 1: Command prompt. The command "ls- al" has just been executed
('ls' stands for 'list' and the parameters '-al' specify that the list command should
display a detailed list of files).

Command language places a considerable cognitive burden on the user in that
the interaction style relies on recall as opposed to recognition memory.
Commands as well as their many parameterised options have to be learned by
heart and the user is given no help in this task of retrieving command names from
memory. This task is not made easier by the fact that many commands (like the
'ls' command in the above example) are abbreviated in order to minimize the
number of necessary keystrokes when typing commands. The learnability of
command languages is generally very poor.
26.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Command Language
Some of the following points are adapted from Shneiderman (1997) and Preece et
al. (1994)
Advantages
● Flexible.
● Appeals to expert users.
● Supports creation of user-defined "scripts" or macros.
● Is suitable for interacting with networked computers even with low bandwidth.
Disadvantages
● Retention of commands is generally very poor.
● Learnability of commands is very poor.
● Error rates are high.
● Error messages and assistance are hard to provide because of the diversity of
possibilities plus the complexity of mapping from tasks to interface concepts and
syntax.
● Not suitable for non-expert users.
26.2 Form fillin
The form fillin interaction style (also called "fill in the blanks") was aimed at a
different set of users than command language, namely non-experts users. When
form fillin interfaces first appeared, the whole interface was form-based, unlike

much of today's software that mix forms with other interaction styles. Back then,
the screen was designed as a form in which data could be entered in the
pre-defined form fields. The TAB-key was (and still is) used to switch between the
fields and ENTER to submit the form. Thus, there was originally no need for a
pointing device such as a mouse and the separation of data in fields allowed for
validation of the input. Form fillin interfaces were (and still is) especially useful for
routine, clerical work or for tasks that require a great deal of data entry. Some
examples of form fillin are shown below.
Figure 2.A: Classic Form fillin via a terminal
Figure 2.B: More modern-day form fillin,

could be from a web page.
Even today, a lot of computer programs like video rental software, financial
systems, pay roll systems etc. are still purely forms-based.
26.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Form Fillin
Some points below are adapted from Shneiderman (1997) and Preece et al.
(1994).
Advantages
● Simplifies data entry.
● Shortens learning in that the fields are predefined and need only be 'recognised'.

● Guides the user via the predefined rules.
Disadvantages
● Consumes screen space.
● Usually sets the scene for rigid formalisation of the business processes.
Please note that "form fillin" is not an abbreviation of "form filling". Instead, it
should be read "form fill-in".
26.3 Menu selection
A menu is a set of options displayed on the screen where the selection and
execution of one (or more) of the options results in a state change of the interface
(Paap and Roske-Hofstrand, 1989, as cited in Preece et al. 1994). Using a system
based on menu-selection, the user selects a command from a predefined
selection of commands arranged in menus and observes the effect. If the labels
on the menus/commands are understandable (and grouped well) users can
accomplish their tasks with negligible learning or memorisation as finding a
command/menu item is a recognition as opposed to recall memory task (see
recall versus recognition). To save screen space menu items are often clustered in
pull-down or pop-up menus. Some examples of menu selection is shown below.

Figure 3.A: Contemporary menu selection
(Notepad by Microsoft Cooperation)
Figure 3.B: Menu selection in the form of a webpage (microsoft.com).

Webpage in general can be said to be based on menu selection.
26.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Menu Selection
(1994).
Advantages
● Ideal for novice or intermittent users.
● Can appeal to expert users if display and selection mechanisms are rapid and if
appropriate "shortcuts" are implemented.

● Affords exploration (users can "look around" in the menus for the appropriate
command, unlike having to remember the name of a command and its spelling when
using command language.)
● Structures decision making.
● Allows easy support of error handling as the user's input does not have to be parsed
(as with command language).
Disadvantages
● Too many menus may lead to information overload or complexity of discouraging
proportions.
● May be slow for frequent users.
● May not be suited for small graphic displays.
26.4 Direct manipulation
Direct manipulation is a central theme in interface design and is treated in a

separate encyclopedia entry (see this). Below, Direct manipulation is only briefly
described.
The term direct manipulation was introduced by Ben Shneiderman in his keynote
address at the NYU Symposium on User Interfaces (Shneiderman 1982) and
more explicitly in Shneiderman (1983) to describe a certain ‘direct’ software
interaction style that can be traced back to Sutherlands sketchpad (Sutherland
1963). Direct manipulation captures the idea of “direct manipulation of the object
of interest” (Shneiderman 1983: p. 57), which means that objects of interest are
represented as distinguishable objects in the UI and are manipulated in a direct
fashion.
Direct manipulation systems have the following characteristics:
● Visibility of the object of interest.

● Rapid, reversible, incremental actions.
● Replacement of complex command language syntax by direct manipulation of the
object of interest.

Figure 4.A: The text-book example of Direct Manipulation, the Windows File
Explorer,
where files are dragged and dropped.
Click to enlarge.
Figure 4.B: One of the earliest commercially available
direct manipulation interfaces was MacPaint.
26.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Direct Manipulation
(1994).

Advantages
● Visually presents task concepts.
● Easy to learn.
● Errors can be avoided more easily.
● Encourages exploration.
● High subjective satisfaction.
● Recognition memory (as opposed to cued or free recall memory)
Disadvantages
● May be more difficult to programme.
● Not suitable for small graphic displays.
● Spatial and visual representation is not always preferable.
● Metaphors can be misleading since the “the essence of metaphor is understanding
and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff and Johnson 1983: p.
5), which, by definition, makes a metaphor different from what it represents or points
to.
● Compact notations may better suit expert users.
UNIT III VALUATION OF INTERACTION – Heuristic evaluation and walkthroughs, analytics

predictive models.

Interaction Design Evaluation
Hello, designers!
In today’s article, we are going to discuss a very crucial fact that is highly
affected by this behavior. Why some apps/systems are so popular and why
some are not? Mostly, the reason is System Evaluation.
There are many types of evaluation methods. With this article, we are going
to discuss evaluation methodologies that users who are not directly involved.
Those are,
1. Heuristic Evaluation
2. Walk-Throughs
3. Web analytics
4. A/B Testing
5. Predictive Models
They can be categorized under inspections, analytics, and models. None of

these methods requires users to be present during the evaluation.
Well-known inspection methods are heuristic evaluation and walk-throughs.
Analytics include web analytics and A/B testing. Predictive modeling
involves analyzing the various physical and mental operations that are
needed to perform particular tasks at the interface and operationalizing them
as measures in designing.

01. Heuristic Evaluation
Heuristic evaluation is a method in which professionals utilize rules of
thumb to test and report on the usability of user interfaces in separate
walkthroughs. Evaluators employ well-established heuristics to uncover
insights that can assist design teams in improving product usability from the
start. There are ten steps that we need to follow.
● Match Between System and Real World

Interaction with the user is critical to the success of a product. Try
employing components that are known to people to make interacting with
the product easier. We can do this by aligning the design system with the
real world. We may utilize text, symbols, pictures, and other elements
that are recognizable to end users so that they can link them to daily
objects and quickly grasp the purpose of each piece.

● Error Prevention
Users are prone to making errors. As a result, we must continually keep a
lookout for any errors and provide relevant advice and alerts as needed. It
is good to provide a proper guide for some user interactions before the
user does something irrecoverable.
● Recognition rather than recall

Minimize the user’s memory load by making objects, actions, and options

visible. Instructions for use of the system should be visible or easily
retrievable whenever appropriate.
● Aesthetic and minimalist design

Dialogues should not contain information that is irrelevant or rarely
needed. Every extra unit of information in a dialogue competes with the
relevant units of information and diminishes their relative visibility.
Using these heuristics, Designers and researchers evaluate aspects of

the interface. Those doing the heuristic evaluation go through the
interface several times, inspecting the various interactive elements and
comparing them with the list of usability heuristics. During each
iteration, usability problems will be identified and ways of fixing them
may be suggested.
References :
Heuristic evaluation - Wikipedia

A heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection method for computer software that helps to
identify usability problems…
en.wikipedia.org
2. Walk-Throughs
Walk-throughs offer an alternative approach to heuristic evaluation for
predicting user problems without doing user testing. The meaning of
walk-throughs involves walking through a task with the product and noting
problematic usability features. There are main two walk-through methods
called Cognitive walk-throughs and Pluralistic walk-throughs.

Cognitive Walk-Throughs
Cognitive walk-throughs involve simulating how users go about
problem-solving at each step in human-computer interaction. A cognitive
walkthrough starts with a task analysis that specifies the sequence of steps or
actions required by a user to accomplish a task, and the system responses to
those actions. The designers and developers of the software then walk
through the steps as a group, asking themselves a set of questions at each
step. Data is gathered during the walkthrough, and afterward, a report of
potential issues is compiled. Finally, the software is redesigned to address
the issues identified.

Pluralistic Walkthrough
The pluralistic usability walkthrough is a group usability evaluation that
follows a predefined set of task scenarios. Here a team that may include
users, as well as developers and usability specialists, are given a series of
paper-based tasks that represent the proposed product interface and asked
to decide and write down, actions they would take for each step to get to the
next step in the task without discussing. Then the discussion session starts
and finalizes the issues they found with potential solutions.
How to do a Design Walk-Through?

1. Schedule a Design Walkthrough.
When describing a project’s micro-level tasks, a design walkthrough should

be arranged. The time and effort of each participant should be factored into
the project plan so that participants may arrange their personal work
schedules properly. Time should be set out for individual preparation, the
design walkthrough (meeting), and any necessary revisions.
2. Follow a Well-Defined Process
A well-structured, documented procedure should be followed throughout a

design walkthrough. This method should assist identify the walkthrough’s
main objective and give systematic procedures and standards of behavior
that can enable participants to interact with one another and contribute
value to the review.
3. Go over the problems again, but don’t solve them.
A design walkthrough serves only one purpose: to identify flaws. However,

there may be occasions when players stray from the core goal. A moderator

must avoid this by ensuring that the tour focuses on the faults or
vulnerabilities rather than identifying remedies or resolutions.
4. Recognize Key Roles and Responsibilities
All participants in the design walkthrough should be aware of their roles and
duties so that they may conduct successful and efficient reviews on a regular
basis.
Cognitive walkthrough - Wikipedia

The cognitive walkthrough method is a usability inspection method used to identify usability
issues in interactive…
en.wikipedia.org
03. Web analytics

Web analytics is a form of interaction logging that was specifically created to
analyze users’ activity on websites so that designers could modify their
designs to attract and retain customers. Using web analytics, web designers
and developers can trace the activity of the users who visit their website.
They can see how many people came to the site, how many stayed and for
how long, and which pages they visited. They can also find out about where
the users came from and much more. Web analytics is therefore a powerful
evaluation tool for web designers that can be used on its own or in
conjunction with other types of evaluations, particularly user testing.

How to do a Web Analytics?
1. Setting goals- The initial stage in the web analytics process is for
organizations to identify their goals and the desired outcomes.
2. Collecting data- The collecting and storage of data is the second phase in
web analytics. Data can be collected directly from a website or web analytics
platform, such as Google Analytics, by businesses.
3. Data processing- Now we can convert the acquired data into usable
information in the following level of the web analytics funnel.
4. Key performance indicators must be identified.
5. Creating a strategy- This step entails putting insights into action in order
to develop strategies that are in line with the aims of the company.

6. Experimenting and Testing- Businesses must test several methods in order
to discover the one that produces the greatest outcomes. A/B testing, for
example, is a basic method for learning how an audience reacts to different
types of material.
Basically, there are two main categories of web analytics:

Off-site web analytics — Engage in the process of web analytics across the
web, regardless of whether a person owns or maintains a website. It includes
the measurement of a website’s potential audience, visibility, and buzz. This
category refers to the type of analytics that focuses on the internet as a whole,
such as social media, search engines, and forums.
On-site web analytics — In this category, the behavior of visitors to a

specific website is measured to see how the site is performing. The two most
common technological approaches to on-site web analytics include log file
analysis and page tagging. Google Analytics and Adobe Analytics are the
most widely used on-site web analytics service
References :
Web analytics - Wikipedia

Most web analytics processes come down to four essential stages or steps, which are: Collection
of data: This stage is…
en.wikipedia.org

04. A/B Testing
Another way to evaluate a website, part of a website, an application, or an
app running on a mobile device is by carrying out a large-scale experiment to
evaluate how two groups of users perform using two different designs — one
of which acts as the control and the other as the experimental condition, that
is, the new design being tested. This approach is known as A/B testing.
A/B testing involves a “between subjects” experimental design in which two

similar groups of participants are randomly selected from a single large user
population.

How do you perform an A/B test?
1. Go for big easy
Inculcate a culture of experimentation by A/B testing user experience

elements that are easy to change but still have big potential impacts.
2. Find your sore spots
When considering what to test, look at your sales funnel to determine where
you’re losing potential conversions.
3.Control of time
To prove causality, an A/B test needs control variables, the elements that are
kept the same throughout the experiment. One variable to control for is time.
Benefits of A/B Testing

1.Increase sales
Any and all of the above-mentioned A/B testing benefits serve to increase
sales volume. Beyond the initial sales boost optimized changes produce,
testing provides better user experiences which, in turn, breeds trust in the
brand, creating loyal, repeat customers and, therefore, increased sales.
2. Increased conversion rates
A/B testing is the simplest and most effective means to determine the best
content to converts visits into sign-ups and purchases. Knowing what works
and what doesn’t helps convert more leads.
3. Improved user engagement

Elements of a page, app, ad, or email that can be A/B tested include the
headline or subject line, imagery, call-to-action forms and language, layout,
fonts, and colors, among others.
05. Predictive models

Predictive modeling is a commonly used statistical technique to predict
future behavior. Predictive modeling solutions are a form of data-mining
technology that works by analyzing historical and current data and
generating a model to help predict future outcomes.
Predictive Modeling Applications

Predictive analytics creates predictive models using predictors or known
information that will be utilized to generate an outcome. A predictive model
can learn how different bits of data interact with one another. Regression

and neural networks are two of the most commonly used predictive modeling
approaches.
Top 5 Types of Predictive Models

1. Classification model: Considered the simplest model, it categorizes
data for simple and direct query responses. An example use case would be
to answer the question “Is this a fraudulent transaction?”
2. Clustering model: This model nests data together by common

attributes. It works by grouping things or people with shared
characteristics or behaviors and plans strategies for each group at a larger
scale.
3. Forecast model: This is a very popular model, and it works on anything

with a numerical value based on learning from historical data. For
example, in answering how much lettuce a restaurant should order next
week.
4. Outliers model: This model works by analyzing abnormal or outlying

data points. For example, a bank might use an outlier model to identify
fraud by asking whether a transaction is outside of the customer’s normal
buying habits or whether an expense in a given category is normal or not.
5. Time series model: This model evaluates a sequence of data points

based on time. For example, the number of stroke patients admitted to
the hospital in the last four months is used to predict how many patients
the hospital might expect to admit next week, next month, or the rest of
the year.

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UNIT - II

Human–computer interaction (HCI), alternatively man–machine interaction (MMI) or

• A basic goal of HCI is

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD DESIGN

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⮚ Employee satisfaction is increased because aggravation and frustration are reduced.

INTRODUCTION OF THE GRAPHICAL USER

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SCREEN DESIGN

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THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

• A user interface is a collection of techniques and mechanisms to interact with something.

• They can be seen, heard, touched, or otherwise perceived.

• They are interacted with as entities independent of all other objects.

THE POPULARITY OF GRAPHICS

GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

• Reduce the memory requirements.

• Symbols recognized faster than text

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• Greater design complexity.

THE CONCEPT OF DIRECT MANIPULATION

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

Sophisticated Visual Presentation:

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Pick-and-Click Interaction: Elements of a graphical screen upon which some action is to be

Presenting specialized graphic portrayals facilitates visualization.

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THE WEB USER INTERFACE

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THE POPULARITY OF THE WEB

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• In 1984, hosts online exceeded 1,000;

• In 1992 hosts exceeded one million.

• Users have become much more discerning about good design.

GUI VERSUS WEB PAGE DESIGN

• Significant differences do exist.

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• User hardware variations limited

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

•Typically created and used by known and trusted sources.

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• User hardware variations enormous.

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PRINCIPLES OF USER INTERFACE DESIGN

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PRINCIPLES FOR THE XEROX STAR

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The interface should be visually, conceptually, and linguistically clear, including

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HUMAN INTERACTION WITH COMPUTERS

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• Extensive technical knowledge but little behavioral training.

Typical psychological responses to poor design are:

• Frustration: An overabundance of annoyances, an inability to easily convey one's intentions

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– In business systems this is a common reaction of managerial and professional

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IMPORTANT HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS IN DESIGN

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