Project Report

Line Following Robot
Chapter 1 Introduction
 A line following robot is a mobile machine employed to sense and follow the black lines
that are drawn on the white surface. As this robot is developed using a breadboard, it will
be very simple to construct. This technique can be incorporated into the Automated
Guided Vehicles (AGV) for providing the easy way of operation.
 Generally, the AGV is integrated with the microprocessor and computers for controlling
its system. It also uses a position feedback system for traveling in the desired path. In
addition, the electric signals and RF communication are needed for communicating with
the vehicle and system controller. Such awkward functions are completely not required
in this line following robot, and it just uses the IR sensors to travel on the black lines.
 Unlike room-exploration robots that often get stuck against chairs and carpet edges, you
don’t have to chase after a well-designed line-following robot. Most line-following robots
have two motors, two front sensors, and a basic electronic circuit for autonomous control.
But, a great thing about this type of robot is that it easy to make small changes for added
complexity. Simple improvement is to install the robot in a decorative container, along
with colorful LEDs. More advanced designs add various sensors and a programmable
microcontroller for faster speed, smoother turning, or maze-solving.
Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 1

Chapter 2 Hardware Implementation
(Circuit diagram and operation)
Working Principle:
 Concept of working of line follower is related to light. We use here the behavior of light at black and white
surface. When light fall on a white surface it is almost full reflected and in case of black surface light is
completely absorbed. This behavior of light is used in building a line follower robot.
Fig. 15 Working principle of the Sensors

Fig. 16 Working principle of the Sensors
 In this line follower robot we have used IR Transmitters and IR receivers also called photo diodes. They are
used for sending and receiving light. IR transmits infrared lights. When infrared rays falls on white surface,
it’s reflected back and catch by photodiodes which generates some voltage changes. When IR light falls on a
black surface, light is absorb by the black surface and no rays are reflected back, thus photo diode does not
receive any light or rays.
Here in this line follower robot when sensor senses white surface then IC gets 1 as input and when senses black
line IC gets 0 as input.
Features Of L293D (Motor Driver):

· Easily compatible with any of the system
· Easy interfacing through FRC (Flat Ribbon Cable)
· External Power supply pin for Motors supported
· Onboard PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) selection switch
· 2pin Terminal Block (Phoenix Connectors) for easy Motors Connection
· Onboard H-Bridge base Motor Driver IC (L293D)

DC motor specification:
 Operating Voltage(VDC): 3~12

 Shaft Length (mm): 8.5
 Shaft Diameter (mm):(Double D-type) 5.5
 No Load Current: 40-180mA.
 Rated Speed(After Reduction): 150
 Rated Torque: 0.8 kg-cm
 Weight (gm):30
 Dimensions in mm (LxWxH): 42x42x20
 Gearbox Shape: L-Shape
 Shipment Weight: 0.06 kg
 Shipment Dimensions: 6 x 6 x 4 cm
Technical Specification:
· Power Supply : Over FRC connector 5V DC
External Power 9V to 24V DC
· Dimensional Size : 44mm x 37mm x 14mm (l x b x h)
· Temperature Range : 0°C to +70 °C
L293D IC:
The driver IC L293D is quad push-pull drivers capable of delivering output currents to 1A per channel
respectively. Each channel is controlled by a TTL-compatible logic input and each pair of drivers (a full bridge) is
equipped with an inhibit input available at pin 1 and pin 9.
The motor will run only when chip inhibit is at high logic i.e. chip inhibit is enabled.
The connection diagram is shown below:

CHAPTER 3 Results and Discussion
CIRCUIT EXPLANATION:
The whole line follower robot can be divided into 3 sections: sensor section, control section and driver section.
Sensor section:
This section contains 2Array IR Sensors which includes IR diodes, potentiometer, Comparator (Op-
Amp) and LED’s. Potentiometer is used for setting reference voltage at comparator’s one terminal and
IR sensors are used to sense the line and provide a change in voltage at comparator’s second terminal. Then
comparator compares both voltages and generates a digital signal at output. Here in this line follower circuit we
have used two comparator for two sensors. LM 358 is used as comparator. LM358 has inbuilt two low noise Op-
amps.
Control Section:
IC ULN2003 is used for controlling whole the process of line follower robot. This IC reads these signals and send
commands to driver circuit to drive line follower.
Driver section:
Driver section consists motor driver and two DC motors. Motor driver is used for driving motors. So we add a
motor driver circuit to get enough voltage and current for motor. IC ULN 2003 sends commands to this motor
driver and then it drive motors.
Here in this project we are using two IR sensor modules namely left sensor and right sensor. When both left and
right sensor senses white then robot move forward.

Fig. 17 Line following principle of the robot
If left sensor comes on black line then robot turn left side.
If right sensor sense black line then robot turn right side until both sensor comes at white surface. When white
surface comes robot starts moving on forward again.

If both sensors comes on black line, robot stops.

Whenever the IR sensor falls on a reflective surface or white surface it starts to give 5v as output.
ULN 2003A is a high-voltage, high- current, Darlington transistor array. In this circuit it act as a switch , whenever
it receives 5v as input , the output switch opens. if there is no input, switch closes. Whenever IR sensor produces
5v as output, the output pin of IR sensor is connected with the input pin of ULN 2003 IC, so the motor starts to
run, if there is no output, the motor stops.

CHAPTER 4 Conclusion
In this project, we have designed a line following robot. This robot does not need any remote
controller or any controller like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GSM, driver etc, it will run automatically with
following a line. We have not used any microcontroller. This robot is very low cost but very
effective for various purposes.Our project can be used in various sectors like in medicine
delivering in hospitals, delivering products in any places, spying, and surveillance and so on. In
future we can add several sensors, cameras etc to get more features.

CHAPTER 5 References
 http://campuscrm.campuscomponent.com/
 http://dspace.ewubd.edu/
 https://electrosome.com/

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Line Following Robot

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 1

Chapter 2 Hardware Implementation

(Circuit diagram and operation)

Fig. 15 Working principle of the Sensors

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 2

Fig. 16 Working principle of the Sensors

Features Of L293D (Motor Driver):

· Easy interfacing through FRC (Flat Ribbon Cable)

· External Power supply pin for Motors supported

· Onboard PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) selection switch

· 2pin Terminal Block (Phoenix Connectors) for easy Motors Connection

· Onboard H-Bridge base Motor Driver IC (L293D)

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 3

 Operating Voltage(VDC): 3~12

· Dimensional Size : 44mm x 37mm x 14mm (l x b x h)

· Temperature Range : 0°C to +70 °C

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 4

CHAPTER 3 Results and Discussion

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 5

Fig. 17 Line following principle of the robot

Fig. 18 Line following principle of the robot

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 6

Fig. 19 Line following principle of the robot

If both sensors comes on black line, robot stops.

Fig. 20 Line following principle of the robot

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 7

Fig. 21 Line following principle of the robot

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 8

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 9

Dept. of ECE, J.C.E.R, Udyambag, Belagavi. Page 10

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