OVERVIEW

Latin America is a vast region which includes Mexico, Central America, South America and the West Indies.
This continent, along with North America is often called “The New World”.
After colonization by the European powers, the South American peoples revolted and threw off their colonial
bondage starting in the 19th centuries. The Hispanic revolutions in South America influenced the Philippine
nationalistic movement in the late 19th century.
As we shall see in this chapter, Latin America was one of the cradles of civilization. Its history and culture have
greatly influenced the world. Moreover, it is the home of some 10% of world's population and of some of the
richest lands in the world. Indeed, the story of the revolutionary struggle of the Latin Americans is a stirring
saga of patriotism, courage and sacrifices.
Ancient Civilizations in Latin America
Long before the European colonization of Latin America, several civilizations had already flourished in this
continent. During the pre-European era, Latin America was inhabited by three main types of natives - the
primitive nomads who roamed the plains of Argentina, the primitive farmers of the Amazon, and the more
advanced peoples who developed remarkable civilizations: the Mayas in present day Yucatan, Guatemala, and
British Honduras; the Aztecs in Mexico; and the Incas who controlled the Andes highlands from mid-Ecuador to
mid-Chile.
The Mayas. The Maya civilization, which was the earliest, was outstanding for its extraordinary development of
the arts and sciences. They occupied Guatemala, Honduras, and Southern Mexico. They built many cities
whose ruins can be found today in places like the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. The Mayas had the greatest
native civilization in ancient America. They were they only people in pre-Columban South America who
developed writing. They had literature in prose and poetry, like some legends which have been translated into
English – Chilam Balam of Yucatan and Popol Vuh of Guatemala.
They had more than one thousand gods in their religion. However, unlike their neighbor the Aztecs, they did
not offer human sacrifices to their gods.
They were expert farmers and were the first to cultivate corn (mais). They had a calendar which was more
exact than the Roman calendar at the time. In fact, their culture reached a peak before 1000 A.D. The Mayas
also developed mathematics and astronomy equal to that reached by Europeans at the time.
The Aztecs. By contrast, the Aztecs mere warlike and brusque as compare to the artistic and intellectual
Mayas. They paid more attention to their army, training all able-bodied males for war. Their state also was
better organized and included a system of courts and a social welfare system for the needy.
The Aztecs inherited the culture of the Mayas, and they built a splendid civilization within the present city of
Mexico. During the 15th century, the Aztec empire spread over most of the Mexico coast. In 1519, when
Montezuma II was their emperor, they were conquered by the Spaniards led by Hernando Cortes.
A cruel part of the Aztec religion was the offering of human sacrifices to their gods. Their chief god was
Huitzilopochtli, the sun god. The Aztecs believed also in Quetzalcoatl; the “white god." So, when the white
Spaniards came, the Aztecs initially greeted them as gods, instead of conquerors.

The Aztecs were the first people to grow and use tobacco and to make chocolate from cacao. Several words
have come from the Aztec language, like “chocolate,” “tomato,” “cayote,” and “tequila.”
The glory of Aztec science is its famous stone calendar, a huge stone block. It is now found in the National
Museum in Mexico City.

The Incas. Finally, the Incas were likewise outstanding for their well-organized empire and great building
projects. Like the ancient Romans, the Incas dominated their area and left many ancient ruins.
Greater than the Aztec empire in area and power, the Inca empire was the greatest civilization in South
America before the coming of the Europeans. At its height, the Inca empire covered almost 4,800 kilometers of
the Andean high-lands, along Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Its ancient ruins
like Cuzco (the capital) and Macchu Picchu are still wonders to behold.
From Cuzco, the Incas built a network of some 40,000 miles of roads to their other cities. At its peak, the
empire had such remarkable fortresses and temples out of huge blocks of stone so perfectly joined that until
now, nearly five hundred years later, a knife cannot be inserted between them. They also developed an
extensive irrigation system, parts of which are still in use.
The Incas were conquered by Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador, whose forces captured the Inca
emperor, Atahualpa on November 15, 1532.

European Conquest and Colonization

From 1500-1800, the Europeans (Spaniards, Portuguese and French) destroyed the Indian civilizations and
carved out colonial empires in Latin America. First were the Spaniards who, after Columbus' voyage,
established an outpost in the Caribbean Islands. From there, Hernando Cortes led an expedition to the
mainland, arriving in Mexico in 1518.
After three years of bloody fighting, Cortes destroyed the Aztec empire, and Mexico fell into the Spanish
empire. In 1535 the Mexican colony was organized as the viceroyalty of New Spain. From south to conquer
and occupy central America, and also north to some parts of Spain also ruled the Philippines until Lopez de
Legazpi colonized the Philippines in 1565.
Meanwhile, the Spanish explorer Vasco Nuñez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513 and opened
the way to the Pacific coastland of Central America. Under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro, Spanish forces
arrived at Peru in 1532 and defeated the Incas.
During the first century of European colonization, the Spaniards had built strong bases in the Caribbean
Islands, Mexico and Panama. They were harassed by British, Dutch and French pirates who raised Spanish
shipping and attacked coastal settlements. But in 1717 Spain established another vice-royalty covering
Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama.
In 1776, the Rio de la Plata area, comprising Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, was established by Spain.
In addition to Spain, Portugal and other European countries also tried to gain footholds in Latin America. In
1500, Pedro Cabral discovered Brazil for Portugal, Brazil became a Portuguese colony for more than three
centuries.
Thus, during the 16th-19th centuries of European colonization, Latin America was divided mainly between
Spain and Portugal. However, the French, Dutch and British were also active in holding small areas or
colonies. France had Haiti and French Guiana. Holland had Dutch Guiana. Britain had Jamaica and British
Guiana.
During the colonial era, the South American Indians were ruthlessly exploited by their conquerors. At times the
Spanish government in Madrid tried to protect the natives, but the New World was too far away and the
colonies continued to be exploited. On many occasions, the Indians revolted colonial masters, but these early
revolts were always crushed. Finally, in the early 19 th century, Latin America exploded in a series of revolutions
which led to the independence of most countries in the continent.
Latin American Wars of Independence
Causes. The Latin America Wars of Independence from 1791that almost all of Latin America became free and
independent independence or Latin American revolutions were as follows:
1. Race discrimination. The white Spaniards and Portuguese enjoyed all the rights and privileges as colonial
masters, while the colored natives (indios) were treated like second-class subjects in their own country.
2. Economic oppression. The Spanish colonial system excluded the native South Americans from the
lucrative trade business. Furthermore, the natives were taxed heavily for their lands, goods and local business.
3. Influence of the American and French Revolutions. Both the American and French Revolutions stirred the
imagination of the natives of Latin America. They were inspired to fight for their rights and freedom.
4. Napoleon's invasion of Spain and Portugal. When Napoleon the Great 1808 and overthrew the Spanish and
Portuguese monarchies, the natives of South America learned that their colonial masters could be defeated
and overthrown. This also inspired them to break their inspired colonial bondage.
Independent Countries.
The first in South America was Haiti, which revolted against France in 1804. Revolts also began in1809 in
Argentina, Ecuador and Mexico, and the struggle for independence continued until 1824.
Mexico won its freedom from Spain oy 1821 under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a revolutionary
general. After winning Mexican independence, General Iturbe established the Mexican Empire (1822-23), with
himself as emperor. But the people wanted a republic, and a year later, in 1823, a popular revolution ousted
him. Guadalupe Victoria (his real name was Manuel Felix Fernandez), another revolutionary general, became
the first President of Mexico in 1824-29.
The great revolutionary hero farther south was General Simon Bolivar, celebrated as "The Liberator" of
northern South America. Bolivar successfully led the struggle for the independence of Venezuela, Panama,
Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia.
In the southern part of the continent, the independence movement was led by General Jose de San Martin.
After freeing Argentina in 1816, he crossed the Andes to help in the liberation of Chile and Peru.
On July 26, 1822, San Martin and Bolivar, the two revolutionary heroes met at Guayaquil, Ecuador, to plan the
two heroes knowing what happened during their talk. But after this historic meeting, San Martin gave way to
the ambitious Bolivar for the sake of unity and freedom. San Martin retired to Buenos Aires and sailed for
Europe, where he died in 1850.
After the meeting at Guayaquil, Bolivar defeated the last Spanish army at the Battle of Ayacucho on December
9, 1824.This victory marked the finale of the Wars of Independence in South America.
Bolivar continued to dominate the newly independent countries until his death in 1830. After his death, the
Republic of Colombia, which he had founded was divided into the countries of Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia and
Venezuela.
Brazilian independence was achieved without bloodshed. After the occupation of Portugal of France in 1807-
1808, Emperor Joao VI left Lisbon to establish a Portuguese government-in-exile at Rio de Jaeiro, Brazil.
Thus, Joao VI became the first European monarch to set foot in the New World where he remained until
1821.When he returned to Lisbon, he left his son Don Pedro (Prince Pedro) to take charge of affairs in Brazil.
The Brazilians, who had enjoyed their independent status from Portugal from 1808 to 1821, did not wish to
return to colonial bondage. Dom Pedro sympathized with their aspiration to be free. On September 7,1822, he
proclaimed Brazilian independence and was crowned as the first Emperor of Brazil. His father, Emperor Joao
VI of Portugal, refused to send an army against him.
The last Spanish colony to win independence from Spain was the island of Cuba. In 1895, a bloody revolution
was led by Jose Marti, a patriotic poet and now Cuba's national hero. In 1898, as the War of Cuba
Independence raged, the United States entered the war and fought against Spain. The causes of this Spanish-
Ameri-can War in 1898 were: (1) American sympathy with the Cuban fight for freedom; (2) American desire to
protect its economic interests in Cuba and to win a military and economic base in Asia; and (3) the blowing up
of the American warship Maine at Havana harbor on February 15,1898. The Americans easily defeated the
Spanish forces in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. By the Treaty of Paris (December 10,1898), Cuba
became independent, while the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam became colonies of the United States.
After a brief military rule by the United States, Cuba became a republic, with Tomas Estrada Palma as first
president (1902-1906).

Post-Independence Problems. Independence from colonial rule brought many problems to South America.
The most important of these post-independence problems were:(1) political fragmentation, (2) militarism, and
(3) constitutional problems.

A. The causes of the political fragmentation of Latin America were as follows:

1. The mountain and jungle barriers separated one region from another.
2.There was lack of communication and transportation facilities among the regions, which often had closer
contact with Europe than with each other.
3. The centuries of isolation under Spain developed separate traditions and interests.
4. Individual leaders had personal ambitions and wanted to become powerful in a small state than become only
one among many leaders in a large country.
The end result of this political fragmentation was that the eight Spanish colonies in the New World became
eighteen separate countries. The Rio de la Plata Viceroyalty split into the separate republics of Argentina,
Paraguay, and Bolivia. Uruguay emerged out of the wars between Argentina and Brazil. The former Vice-
royalty of New Granada split into Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. Guatemala broke up into
Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras and Costa Rica.
B. Militarism
Independence in Latin America also brought into power the military as the only institution in the country that
could restore peace and order after the politicians failed. More than civilian politicians, Latin America has since
been ruled by military officers and juntas.
In fact, most of the presidents of Latin American countries have been army officers. In Peru, over 80% of the
country's presidents have been military men who took over after coup d'etats. In Ecuador, students at the
military schools are taught that the last step in a military career is the presidency of the republic. Many
countries, especially in Central America, are governed by coalitions of military leaders and large landowners.
Thus, unlike the Philippines where the military are forbidden by the constitution and by tradition from interfering
in politics, in Latin America, the military is a dominant factor in its unstable politics.

C. Constitutional Problems.
Independence also produced constitutional problems as well as political fragmentation and militarism. Although
all Latin American countries today are republics, some of them experimented with monarchy after achieving
independence.
Three countries have been especially noteworthy monarchies. Brazil was a monarchy from 1822 to 1889,
having two emperors-Don Pedro I (1822-1831) and Don Pedro II (1831-1889). Mexico likewise had two kings
during the 19th century - Agustin de Iturbide (1822-1823) and Maximilian of Hapsburg (1864.1867). Haiti tried
monarchy under three colorful emperors-Jean Jacques Dessalines (1804-1806), Henry Christopher (1811-
1820), and Faustin Soulouque (1849-1859). The Brazilian experience with their Portuguese monarchs was
generally successful. Indeed, their historians still refer to the sixty-seven years of the Brazil imperial period as
their "Golden Age." However, the Mexican and Haitian cases of monarchy failed. The reigns of all the kings of
Mexico and Haiti were chaotic and disorderly and ended in the violent deaths of the kings themselves.
Governments have risen and fallen in Latin America with alarming frequency. Since 1900 there have been
more than eighty successful revolutions or coup d'etats in Latin America. The early his-tory of Latin America
was thus darkened by periodic revolutions and the rise and fall of dictators.
Latin American Contributions to Civilization
Agriculture. The cultivation and spread of over one hundred major plants were the most important
contributions of South America to world civilization. The ancient Mayas, Aztecs and Incas grow corn, tomatoes,
potatoes, cacao, and tobacco. From them, the Spaniards and other Europeans imported and cultivated these
and other native plants in the mother country and other colonies.
At present, South America is a major agricultural area. About 50% of the world's coffee comes from Brazil and
Colombia. Rich farmlands in the continent produce cocoa, sugar, linseed, cotton, bananas, corn, and other
products. Beef, cattle and wool are also major South American exports.
Religion. Latin America has become one of the world’s bastions of Roman Catholicism. The entire continent is
almost all Catholic due to Spanish and Portuguese colonization. A unique blend of religion and politics has
influenced South American history, where the catholic clergy traditionally fought for the rights of the peasants
and oppressed. In Mexico, Father Miguel Hidalgo, the parish priest who raised the cry of independence which
ignited the Mexican revolution, is known as the “Father of Mexican Independence”.
In the 20th century, the Latin American clergy has championed the cause of “liberation theology”. They preach
that the church must not only save souls but also work to save man from material poverty, ignorance and
political oppression. Thus, in many South American countries, the Catholic clergy actively stand against military
dictators and engage in projects to help the poor.
Arts and Music. Latin America has preserved and improved upon the ancient arts of the Mayas, Aztecs and
Incas, and other native tribes. Modem Latin American artists, sculptors and architects have developed their
own distinctive styles which attract international fame. The mural paintings of Diego Rivera, Miguel
Covarrubias and Jose Clemente Orozco express an eloquent social message. These Mexican painters depict
Mexican folklore, Indian customs, and revolutionary events.
Mexican architects have perfected the “floating foundation" construction to make buildings earthquake-proof.
Brazilian architects have developed a modernistic architectural style and design, now called "Brazilian," which
was used in the construction of the new capital of Brazilia.
The folk music of the ancient South Americans has been blended into Latin music to produce the melodious
and enchanting tunes of modern times. Some of Latin America's famous contributions to music are: the
mariachi music of Mexico; the tango dance of Argentina; the cha-cha-cha of Cuba, the samba of Brazil; and the
calypso and Jamaican drum band.
Science. Latin American scientists rank among the world’s best, especially in medicine. The Cuban physician,
Dr. Carlos Finlay discovered the cause of yellow fever. Dr. Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologists won the
Nobel Prize in 1947 for his study of internal glands.
Literature. The literature of Latin America is patriotic, romantic and intense. Most of its great patriots and
liberators were not only great generals and statesmen but also writers. Among those who wielded the pen and
sword were Bolivar, San Augustin, Father Hidalgo, Benito Juarez and Marti. Ruben Dario, a Nicaraguan poet
and diplomat, is widely known in the Hispanic world for his lyrical verses. His famous collection of poems was
Azul.

REFERENCES
Bailey, Helen M. Nasitir, Abraham P.,Latin America: The Development of Its Civilization.Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.: Pren-tice-Hall,1960.
Herring,Hubert A., A History of Latin America. New York: Macmillan, 1955.
Leften S. Stavrianos et al, A Global His-tory of Man. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1968.
Thomas, Alfred B., Latin America:A History.New York: Macmillan, 1965.