Chapter 3 : LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS

Latin America
Latin America is a vast region which includes Mexico, Central America, South America, and the West
Indies. It is the Latin language-speaking parts of the American continents (Spanish and French), as opposed
to the English and Dutch-speaking parts. As you read in Chapter 5, Central and South America had ancient
civilizations before Columbus came. However, the European colonization destroyed the ancient civilizations
in the Americas and brought them into the modern world.

There are two interesting errors about North and South America which showed how crude was the
knowledge of early explorers. Firstly, the two land masses were previously thought as one, Hence, the name
"America" was applied to both continents, Secondly, Columbus thought that he had discovered the sea
route to the Indies. However, later, they found out it was not the East after all, but an entirely new world
altogether. Then they named it the "West Indies," to make it different from the East Indies.

The Americas proved to be a valuable source of wealth for the European colonizers. It had rich mines,
plantations, and exotic new plants (corn, potato, indigo, tobacco, sugar, etc.). More importantly, the New
World had many new souls to be baptized into Christianity, as was the custom of Portuguese and Spanish
missionaries. Due to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, the Atlantic side of South America ended up mostly
explored by Portugal. The Pacific side ended up explored and colonized exclusively by Spain.

Three hundred years after their colonization by the European powers, the South American peoples revolted
and threw off their colonial bondage in the 19th century. The Latin American revolutions inspired the
Philippine nationalistic movement in the late 19th century.

South American history and culture have greatly influenced the world. It is the home of 10% of the world's
population and some of the richest lands in the world. The story of the struggle of the South Americans to be
free is a stirring saga of patriotism, courage and sacrifice.

Chapter 3
1. Discontentment with European Colonization
2. Successful Independence Wars
3. Post-Independence Problems
4. Latin American Contributions to Civilization

1 .Discontentment with European Colonization

During the 19th century, a continent and an ocean away from Europe, Latin America was undergoing a
social upheaval of major proportions as well. One by one, major European colonies in Latin America rose in
revolution and won their independence. The ideas of the Enlightenment, the goals of the American and
French Revolutions, and their own desire for freedom and justice propelled Latin Americans into the modern
world. The native Latin Americans wanted to get rid of their own monarchs and colonial masters, and to
taste what "liberty, equality, and fraternity" meant.

Western Colonies in South America.

The European colonizers who came to South American had destroyed the native civilizations and carved out
their colonial empires. The Spaniards, Portuguese, French and other Western European colonizers wiped out
memories of the native civilizations, and imposed their absolute rule on the natives.
Although the natives rose in many revolts, it was not until the 19th century that Latin America became
independent. Latin America is the term applied to those countries in Central and South America where the
Latin languages-Spanish, French and Portuguese -are spoken.

The Portuguese were the first to explore and get a foothold in South America. But it was the Spaniards who
sent Christopher Columbus and first established an outpost in the Caribbean Islands, through his voyages on
the 1490s. From the Caribbean island Spanish base, Hernando Cortes led an expedition to the Central
American mainland, and arrived in Mexico in 1518. After three years of bloody fighting, Cortes destroyed
the Aztec empire, and Mexico fell into the Spanish empire. Under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro,
Spanish forces arrived at Peru in 1532 and defeated the Incas.

In 1535, the Mexican colony was organized as a Spanish viceroyalty of Spain. This enabled a viceroy to
make decisions for the growing Spanish empire in the Americas Spanish colonizers moved south to conquer
and occupy other parts of Central and South America. They also moved north to some parts of western
United States, like California and Florida. It was from Mexico that Miguel de Legazpi colonized the
Philippines in 1565. It was also from Mexico that Spain ruled the Philippines for 300 years until 1821. The
Manila to Acapulco galleon trade brought the products of Asia by sea to the New World, and then to Europe.
Thus, the Manila Galleon trade was important to link three continents.

During the first century of European colonization, the Spaniards built strong bases in the Caribbean Islands,
Mexico and Panama. They were harassed by British, Dutch and French pirates who raided Spanish shipping
and attacked coastal settlements. But, in 1717, Spain established another viceroyalty covering Colombia,
Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama. In 1776, the Rio dela Plata area, comprising Argentina, Paraguay and
Uruguay, was established by Spain.

In addition to Spain, Portugal and other European countries claimed colonies in South America. In 1500,
Pedro Cabral discovered Brazil for Portugal. Brazil became a Portuguese colony for more than three
centuries. Thus, during the 16 to 19th centuries of European colonization, South America was divided
mainly between Spain and Portugal The French, Dutch and British held only small areas or colonies. France
had Haitrand French Guiana. Holland had Dutch Guiana Britain had Jamaica and British Guiana

During the colonial era, the South American native Indians were ruthlessly exploited by the Western
conquerors. The Spanish government in Madrid tried to protect the natives, but the New World was too far
away and the colonies continued to be exploited. On many occasions, the native Indians revoited against
their colonial masters, but these early revoits were always crushed. It was not until the early 19 century that
Latin America exploded in a series of revolutions which led to the independence of most countries in the
continent.

Causes of Discontentment.
The Latin American Wars of Independence from 1791 to 1826 were mostly successful, so that almost all of
Latin America became free and independent states. The causes of these Latin American wars of
independence may be summarized as follows:

1) Race discrimination.
The white-race Spaniards and Portuguese (called peninsulares) enjoyed the best privileges as colonial
masters, while the colored natives (indios) and hall-breeds (mestizos) were treated like second class subjects
in their own country. The peninsulares refer to those who came from the Iberian Peninsula of Spain and
Portugal. The indio and the mestizo were born in the Latin American continent.
The South American revolutions were led mostly by educated native indios like Fr. Hidalgo of Mexico,
Generals Bolivar and San Martin who were fed up with discrimination.

2) Economic oppression. The Spanish colonial system excluded the slaves and native South Americans
from the lucrative businesses. Furthermore, the natives were taxed heavily. The first successful revolution in
Haiti was led by African slaves who wanted equal opportunities with the white-race colonizers.
3) Influence of the Enlightenment and American and French Revolutions. Many South American indios
and mestizos who studied in Europe brought back the ideas of the 18th century Enlightenment to their
homeland. The American and French Revolutions also stirred the imagination of the Latin Americans.
Eventually, the works of Voltaire and Rousseau were banned in South America and news of the American
and French revolutions was censored. But the revolutionary ideas filtered in anyway.
4) Napoleon's invasion of Spain and Portugal. When Napoleon the Great of France invaded the Iberian
Peninsula in 1808 and overthrew the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies, the natives of South America were
delighted. They learned that their colonial masters could be defeated and overthrown. This also inspired
them to break their colonial bondage.

2. Successful Independence Wars

In the small Mexican village of Dolores, the parish priest, Father Miguel Hidalgo, rang the church bell to
call his people together. Father Hidalgo was an indio who had become an influential village leader. "My
children." he proclaimed, "do you not wish to be free? Will you make the effort to recover from the hated
Spaniards the land stolen from your forefathers 300 years ago?" On that day, September 16, 1810, Father
Hidalgo raised the first battle cry for independence from Spain. The famous "elgrito de Dolores" (the Cry of
Dolores) was echoed throughout the Mexican nation and the Latin continent. September 16" is celebrated
today as Mexico's Independence Day.

First Independent Countries.

The first country to break free from colonial rule in South America was Haiti. Haiti was a French colony in
Central America, and occupied half of the island with today's Dominican Republic. Haiti was developed by
the French as a plantation economy, with slaves from Africa. It became France's wealthiest overseas colony.
From 1791 to 1804, the African slaves staged a bloody revolt to break free from their miserable French
plantation masters. The Haiti Revolution became the largest and most successful slave rebellion in history.
The success of Haiti inspired other Latin American native revolutions. Revolts also broke out in Argentina,
Ecuador, Mexico and other countries, and the struggle for independence continued successfully until 1824.

In 1821, Mexico won its freedom from Spain under the leadership of General Agustin de Iturbide.
Revolutionary generals did not necessarily come from military backgrounds. But they became generals
because they were able to raise an army of volunteers and freedom fighters. (This was also the case with the
revolutionary generals in the Philippines, like Aguinaldo.) After winning Mexican independence, General
Iturbide proclaimed himself as emperor (1822-23). But in 1823, the people ousted him quickly and
established a republic The greatest and best-known revolutionary hero of South America was General Simon
Bolivar of Venezuela (1783-1830). Bolivar ("The Liberator"] successfully led the battle for independence of
northern countries in South America Venezuela, Panama. Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia. In fact, the last
country was named after him. Meanwhile, in the southern part of the continent, the independence movement
was led by another successful liberator, General Jose de San Martin of Argentina (1778-1850). Today, San
Martin is the national hero of Argentina. After freeing Argentina in 1816, he crossed the Andes to help in the
liberation of Chile and Peru.
Precious Pia Ponce BSED -2 SS
Reporter
Historic Unity Meeting.
Because neither of them could finish the task of defeating the last Spanish strongholds, Bolivar and San
Martin met in a secret summit at Guayaquil, Ecuador on July 26, 1822. Historians are still debating what
happened, because after this meeting, a most unusual thing happened. General San Martin graciously turned
over his military forces to Bolivar, for the sake, it was said, of the cause they both cherished. San Martin
sailed for Europe, and never came back home to challenge or rival Bolivar.
Their unity, and the sacrifice of San Martin, is acknowledged by historians as the key to the success of the
final liberation of South America. Otherwise, they might have fought each other to the death (like the tragic
Bonifacio-Aguinaldo rivalry in the Philippine Revolution).
General Bolivar led their united forces to victory and defeated the last Spanish army in Peru on December 9,
1824. This victory marked the end of the Wars of Independence in South America. Simon Bolivar continued
to dominate the newly independent countries until his death in 1830. The independence of Brazil was
achieved without bloodshed. After the occupation of Portugal of France in 1807-1808, the C Portuguese
emperor Joao VI left Lisbon and took refuge in Brazil, making the capital Rio de Janeiro as his new empire.
When he returned to Portugal in 1821, he left his son Dom Pedro in charge. But the Brazilians wanted to
become independent.

Dom Pedro sympathized with them. On September 7, 1822, he proclaimed Brazilian independence and was
crowned as the first Emperor of Brazil. Dom Pedro agreed to be a constitutional monarch, with an elected
legislature and freedom for the people. In 1889, the Brazilians ousted the emperor anyway, and established a
republic, like the other Latin American countries. The last Spanish colony to win independence from Spain
was the island of Cuba. In 1895, Jose Marti, a patriotic poet and Cuba's national hero, led Cuba into a war of
independence from Spain.

The Cuban revolution involved the Philippines in two ways:

(1) The Filipino hero Dr. Jose Rizal was on his way to Cuba when he was arrested and executed by the
Spanish government; and
(2) Because of Cuba, the United States waged war on Spain, and then annexed the Philippines.
The US had economic interests in Cuba. In 1898, as the War of Cuban Independence raged, the American
warship Maine was blown up at Havana harbor. The US declared war on Spain and sent its army to help the
Cuban freedom fighters. With American help. Spanish forces were defeated in Cuba and the Philippines.
However, the US decided to annex the Philippines (but Cuba achieved its independence). It shocked the
Filipinos that the Treaty of Paris in 1898, which settled the Spanish-American War, gave Cuba
independence, but annexed the Philippines to the United States. The story of the US decision to hold on to
the Philippines was mentioned in Chapter 15.

Influence of the Latin American Revolutions on the Philippines.

The Latin American revolutions in the 19th century greatly influenced the history of the Philippines. Far
more than the US and French revolutions, the liberation of Latin America intersected with the Philippine
independence movement. After the Latin American independence movements in the early 19th century, as
previously mentioned, the Filipinos pressed their claims for greater freedom and rights from Spain. When
those claims were frustrated, Filipino patriots of the 19 century considered revolution as the only option left
for the Philippines.
Secondly, the Philippine national flag and first republic were inspired by the Latin American revolutions.
The tricolor design of the Philippine flag which appeared in 1898 was similar to the revolutionary Cuban
flag (see photo). The first Philippine Constitution of 1899 at the Malolos Convention was influenced by the
constitutions of Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Guatemala.
Finally, because of the Cuban Revolution, the Philippines became a colony of the United States. Had
American interests not been involved in Cuba, there would never have been any reason for the US to come
to the Philippines.

3. Post-Independence Problems.
South American independence from colonial rule brought many problems. The most important of these
post-independence problems were:
(1) political fragmentation, (2) militarism, and (3) constitutional problems.

(1) Political Fragmentation.

According to a Latin America saying, "Independence was only the last day of oppression, and the first day
of the same thing." This tells how independence in Latin America did nor bring happiness to the people. To
them. independence only meant a change of leaders. but no real liberty from oppression.
The most noticeable change after their independence was political fragmentation.
Bolivar had dreamed of a Latin America that was both united and free. Instead, a large number of new states
appeared that challenged, rather than helped, each other. The political fragmentation in Latin America
proved a great hindrance to development and progress.
The causes of the political fragmentation of Latin America were as follows:
1) The mountain and jungle barriers separated one region from another.

2) There was lack of communication and transportation facilities among the regions, which kept closer
contact with Europe than with each other.

3) The centuries of isolation under Spain, France and Portugal developed separate traditions and
interests.

4) Individual leaders had personal ambitions and wanted to become powerful in a small state than
become only one among many leaders in a large country.

The end result of these political splits was that the eight (8) Spanish colonies in the New World became
eighteen (18) new states.

(2) Militarism.
The military became the most powerful force in society after independence in Latin America. The military
was the only institution that could restore peace and order after the politicians disagreed, and the nations
fragmented. For over a century after independence, military officers and juntas ruled one Latin American
country after another. Most of the presidents of Latin American countries have been military officers who
usually led coups d'état to take over from civilian politicians. Many countries, especially in Central America,
are governed by coalitions of military leaders and large landowners. Thus, unlike the Philippines, the Latin
American military dominates politics and society.

(3) Constitutional Problems.

Latin American countries experience major changes of governments frequently. In the beginning the three
leading independent statesofHaiti, Mexicoand Brazil experimented with monarchies. But eventually, they
turned into republics, like the other Latin American states. Governments rise and fall in Latin America with
alarming frequency.
Since 1900 about a hundred coups d'état or revoits have led to constitutional changes of governmens in the
continent. Thus, the history of the continent has been darkened by the rise and fall of military dictators,
bloody revoits political instability, and great poverty.

4. Latin American Contributions to Civilization.

• Agriculture.
The cultivation and spread of over one hundred major plants were the most important contributions of South
America to world civilization. The ancient Mayas, Aztecs and Incas grew crops that were unknown to the
white Europeans (corn, potato, tomato, cacao, tobacco, etc.) Eventually, the Europeans cultivated these
American plants in vast plantations and included them in their regular diet. Spanish missionaries from
Mexico spread these crops to the Philippines.
At present, South America is a major agricultural area. About 50% of the world's coffee comes from Brazil
and Colombia. Rich farmlands in the continent produce cocoa, sugar, linseed, cotton, bananas, corn, and
other products. Beef, cattle and wool are major South American exports. The Amazon rainforests are a
treasure trove of plants yet to be fully developed.

• Bastion of Christianity.
Latin America has become one of the world's greatest bastions of Roman Catholicism. The entire continent
is almost all Catholic, due to Spanish and Portuguese missions. A unique blend of religion and politics
continues to influence South American history. Catholic and evangelical Christian clergy traditionally fight
for the rights of peasants and the oppressed, and against drug cartels and cruel industrialists. It was due to
Dominican friar Bartolome de las Casas appeal that Spain became the first Western power to outlaw slavery.
The liberation theology in modern economic theory came from South American clergy. In the 20th century,
the Latin American clergy has championed the cause of the poor, the ecology and the minorities. Thus, in
many South American countries, the clergy actively resist political oppression and greedy developers. Latin
American Christians, both Catholics and evangelicals, have experienced waves of pentecostal and
charismatic revivals.

• Arts, Architecture, and Music.

Latin America has preserved and improved upon the ancient arts of the Mayas, Aztecs and Incas, and other
native tribes. Modern Latin American artists, sculptors and architects have developed their own distinctive
styles which attract international fame. The mural paintings of Diego Rivera, Miguel Covarrubias and Jose
Clemente Orozco express an eloquent social message. These Mexican painters depict Mexican folklore,
Indian customs, and revolutionary events.
Mexican architects perfected the "floating foundation" construction to make buildings earthquake proof.
Brazilian architects have developed a modernistic architectural style called "Brazilian." The folk music of
South America has blended into Latin rhythm to produce colorful music and dances, like the mariachi,
tango, chacha, samba, and calypso.

• Science and Engineering.

Latin American scientists rank among the world's best, especially in medicine. Dr. Bernardo Houssay,
Argentine physiologist, won the Nobel Prize in 1947 for his study of internal glands. The Cuban physician
Dr. Carlos Finlay discovered the cause of yellow fever, a deadly disease. His discovery was of great help to
the builders of the Panama Canal. The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, is an 82-kilometer ship canal that
connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The canal shortened the passage between the European and
American continents and is a marvel of modern engineering. Ownership of the canal passed from the United
States (which first developed it) to the government of Panama.
• Literature.
The literature of Latin America is patriotic, romantic and dramatic. Most of its great patriots and liberators
were not only great generals and statesmen but also good writers. Among those who wielded both pen and
sword were Bolivar, San Martin, Hidalgo, Benito Juarez, and Marti. Ruben Dario, a Nicaraguan poet and
diplomat, is widely known in the Hispanic world. Other famous writers are Che Guevarra, the revolutionary
activist; Pablo Neruda of Chile; and political commentator Mario Vargas Llosa of Peru, Nobel Prize laureate
in 2010.

• Women in South America. South American women have made far-ranging contributions in politics,
business, science, literature, law, fashion, and sports. In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to
Rigoberta Menchu Tum from Guatemala. Coming from a poor-indio peasant family of the Maya tribe, she
campaigned for indigenous rights in her country. The most celebrated Latin American female politician was
Eva Duarte Peron, first lady of Argentina in 1946-52. She was the wife of President Juan Peron of Argentina.
Her popularity with the masses, campaign for women suffrage, and political leadership earned her
international fame, controversy, and a musical about her life, "Evita." She blazed a trail for other women
politicians, like Isabel Peron, widow of Juan Peron, who briefly took over as president in 1974-76. Isabel
Peron became the first female president of any country in history. In 2007, the first elected female president
of Argentina, Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner, paid tribute to Evita Peron's "passion and courage." Since
then, there have been other female politicians elected to lead in other Latin American countries

Rica Joy Sumagaysay BSED-2 SS

Reporter
 Chapter 5: Industrial Revolution

1. Industrial Revolution
Meaning of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a peaceful change from
manual work to mechanical and industrial production. It was not sudden or quick. It was a long, slow
process, over several centuries. The Industrial Revolution had two stages. During the first stage, from about
1750 to 1850, Britain took the lead in inventing new methods of production. During the second stage, from
1850 to about 1914, the United States and Western European nations also became 'modern industrial powers,
and many social abuses were corrected. Eventually, the Industrial Revolution completely changed the
patterns of life in the entire world.
The meaning of the Industrial Revolution can be summarized in the following changes:
(1) the mechanization of agriculture and industry;
(2) the use of power (electricity, steam, oil) in industry;
(3) the development of the factory system;
(4) a sensational development of transportation and communication; and
(5) an increase in big business control of the economy.

2. Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution

By noon, fashionable ladies, sailors, workers, and bankers filled London's Crystal Palace, a beautiful
newly built all-glass domed building in Hyde Park, London. The trumpets blared, crowds cheered, and
Queen Victoria of England stepped down from her royal carriage. She was opening the Great Exhibition of
1851. The fair would display “the works of industry of all nations”. Its theme was progress. Inside the
Crystal Palace, visitors marveled at the more than 6,000 exhibits from around the world. What pleased them
most was to see that Britain had become the “factory of the world." Britain was now the world's greatest
power.

Spiritual Revolution in Britain. As visitors looked in awe at the trains, power looms, steam engines, and
other machines, they could see how far their world had come in the 1800s. In the 1700s, Britain had suffered
the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in America. France and Europe were embroiled in bloody and violent
revolutions and wars. The economic and political uncertainties then were made worse by a loss of morale in
British society. Street people roamed in London streets - men, women, and even children drank because they
thought they had no hope.
A Christian revival swept Britain and brought a message of salvation and hope by faith. In the late
1700s, powerful evangelists led by George Whitefield and John and Charles Wesley inspired crowds. People
began returning to the Bible and to church. The Christian revival introduced Christian education. Because
there were no free schools, Christian churches opened Sunday schools. The revival gave importance to the
value of work, teaching that it should be done for the glory of God, not only for material or personal gain.
The spiritual revival created a spirit of hope and opened new opportunities for the nation.
Historians recognize that this Christian revival saved Britain from a bloody revolution and was one
of the causes of the Industrial Revolution. It inspired farmers, miners, and workers to use resources and
work more efficiently. Better tools and methods were invented, at first in agriculture, then in manufacturing.
With a stronger agriculture and more food, the population grew healthier and bigger. Britain expanded into
inventing the new machines and manufacturing industries.

Britain, Cradle of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the middle of the
18th century. From there it spread to other countries of Europe and the world.
The favorable conditions which made Britain the cradle of the Industrial Revolution was as follows:
1.) The Wesleyan Christian revival emphasized the work ethic and promoted, through Christian education,
the hope that poor people could better themselves.
2.) Improvements in agriculture expanded food supply, made people healthier and happier, and increased the
population.
3.) The abundance of natural resources like coal, iron, and water in Britain.
4.) Britain had many skilled artisans, including those who had fled France, Germany, and other European
countries during the religious persecution and wars.
5.) Britain had a stable government dominated by a merchant and capitalist class. Furthermore, the British
government encouraged industrial growth by not making too many laws or taxes to discourage business.
6.) Being a colonial power, Britain had plenty of raw materials and markets for manufactured products.
7.) Britain had the best banking system in Europe at the time, and it was able to raise the necessary capital
to finance new business ventures.
8.) Britain had a large merchant fleet to ship goods all over the world, and the best navy to protect its ships.
9.) Finally, Britain's damp climate favored the manufacture of cotton cloths since the thread would not
become brittle and break off easily when woven by machines. The mechanization of the textile industry
helped the Industrial Revolution take off in Britain.

Agricultural Revolution. Another reason why the Industrial Revolution got underway first in Britain
was a revolution in agriculture. Changes in British farming greatly increased the amount and variety of food
produced. People with enough food in their stomach always start the day well.

Since the Middle Ages, farmers had planted the same crop in a given field year in and year out. In
the 1730s, Lord Charles Townshend, a British official and landowner, took an interest in his farms. He
introduced the mass production of turnips, which became a staple of the poor man's diet. He discovered that
fields would produce more crops if the farmers rotated the crops they planted in a field. He suggested that
farmers grow wheat or barley in a field for one or two years and then plant clover or turnips in the next
years. His idea for a four-field crop rotation helped increase not only food production, but also food for
cattle and sheep. As food and meat became available at lower cost, people could eat more protein and a
healthier diet. His interest in agriculture earned him the nickname 'Turnip Townshend.”

The invention of farm machines also increased food production. One day, Jethro Tull, a British
inventor, got an idea in church while watching the organ pipes playing music. In 1701, he perfected a horse-
drawn seed drill to efficiently plant seeds in neat rows into the soil. The Jethro Tull mechanical seed drill
was adopted by many landowners, and it helped form the basis of modern agriculture. Farmers also began to
use mechanical reapers and threshers, which made harvesting easier. Food production increased some more.

In the 1700s, farmers began to enclose bigger plots of land to make agriculture more efficient and
experiment with new crops, like the corn and potato from the New World. The enclosure movement of
farmlands forced many small farmers off their land. Some became tenant farmers. Others drifted to towns in
search of new work and became the factory workers.

The Agricultural Revolution helped set the stage for the Industrial Revolution. With more food
available, people's diet and health improved. These changes contributed to a rapid growth of population.
With more people, the demand for manufactured goods, like clothing, grew. Moreover, the new methods of
farming needed fewer people to work the land. Unemployed farm workers formed the labor pool for the
factories.

3. Changes in the Textile Industry

When changes in agriculture laid off many farmers and farm workers, they looked for new work in
the towns and cities. It was a blessing that new mechanical inventions and new factories were being created
in these places to absorb the workers.
 As you have read in Chapter 12, the commercial revolution had developed a cottage production for wool
cloth in rural areas. But the cottage system could not keep up with a rising demand for cloth, especially
cotton cloth. In the 1700s, practical-minded persons developed new ways to improve the manufacture of
clothing. Each invention triggered others, like a domino effect. Soon, the entire textile industry boomed and
a new era in world history began.

The Textile Factories Lead the Industrial Revolution. The first industry to be mechanized was the
manufacture of cotton cloth. As compared to other enterprises, the cotton industry was young, so there was
much room for growth and invention. Secondly, the profits depended on production in bulk. Bulk production
meant more profits.

First, the cotton threads had to be woven. In 1733, John Kay, a watchmaker, invented the flying
shuttle, a device that doubled the speed of producing cotton thread. The flying shuttle replaced the hand-held
shuttle used in weaving thread. In 1764, James Hargreaves, a carpenter, invented the spinning jenny,
named after his wife Jenny. Using this spinning jenny, a person could spin up to 80 threads at one time.

In 1769, a poor barber named Richard Arkwright built a machine that could hold up to 100
spindles. His invention was too heavy to be hand-operated, so he used waterpower to turn it. Thus, the
machine was called the water frame. Ten years later, a mechanic named Samuel Crompton developed the
spinning mule, which used features of Hargreaves' spinning jenny and Arkwright's water frame. Again, the
production of cotton thread was increased.

Now, the loom had to be improved. With more threads now available, the weaver's loom found its
creator. In 1785 Edmund Cartwright, an Anglican pastor, invented the power loom which quickened the
process of weaving.

They needed more raw cotton to feed these machines. In 1793, an American, Eli Whitney, invented
the cotton gin (the term “gin" is a shortened word for “engine"). Whitney's cotton gin made it possible for a
single slave in an American cotton plantation to turn out raw cotton as 50 slaves had done by hand before.
By the 1830s, Britain was importing 280 million pounds of raw cotton every year, mostly from the US, its
former colony, with which it had made peace.

The new machines were expensive and needed to be near rivers; so that the water could turn the
wheel to power the machines. Inventors like Arkwright built spinning mills and started hiring hundreds of
workers.
These early textile mills operated under the factory system, which replaced the cottage production of
cloth. Under the factory system workers and machines were in one place to manufacture goods. Everyone
worked a set number of hours each day, and workers were paid daily or weekly salaries.

Development of New Sources of Energy. Although the textile mills run by waterpower started factory
manufacturing, steam power became the major source of energy. The idea of a steam-powered engine had
been around for a long time.

It was James Watt, a Scottish engineer, who perfected the reliable steam engine in the 1760s. Watt's
steam engine supplied most of the power to run industries in Britain and in other countries in Europe.
In 1831, Michael Faraday (English) invented the electricity dynamo used to run machinery. Soon,
electricity supplemented water and steam as a source of power for industrial purposes.

Development of the Iron, Coal, and Steel Industries. Producing and operating the steam engine and other
new machines needed huge quantities of iron and coal. Britain was blessed in having large deposits of both.
During the Industrial Revolution, better methods of production boosted the mining of iron and coal and
improved the quality of iron.
 Britain quadrupled its iron production between 1788 and 1806. Coal production also bloomed
because coal fueled the early Industrial Revolution. Despite the mechanization of other industries, the work
in coal mine largely depended on the backbreaking labor of men, women, and even children. As you will
read later, the conditions of these workers caused great concern.
In the 1856, Henry Bessemer developed the production of steel, a harder metal from iron and other
materials. As steel became available, it triggered the growth of other industries.

Prepared by: Lino T. Buizon

4 Spread of Industrialization

Read to Understand
 Why one key sector like transportation rapidly improved other industries ?
 What advances led to the knowledge explosion ?
 Why some countries did not industrialize and progress?
 How advances in science and technology improved life.

By the 1850s, the pace of industrialization quickened, and the Industrial Revolution entered its
second stage. Between 1850 to 1914, industries grew rapidly in other Western nations, like the US, Belgium,
France, and Germany. In Asia, Japan also joined the ranks of industrialized nations.

Advances in Transportation. A good transportation system was needed to run the factories and to distribute
the finished goods. The 18th and 19th centuries were a time for building new roads and water canals,
beginning in Britain and then all over the world. Canals were built to facilitate the flow of trade and travel
both inland and transcontinental. Many inland canals were dug in Europe, America, and even China. Two
great sea canals served as important sea highways the Suez Canal (1869), which links the Mediterranean
Sea and the Red Sea; and the Panama Canal (1914), which connects two oceans - the Pacific Ocean and
the Atlantic Ocean.

A Scottish engineer invented a road surface made of crushed Stone. This made the road usable in all
weather. Road travel in Britain became almost as fast as it was in Roman times. Britain pioneered in
shipbuilding and railroad building. But an American invented steam power for ships. In 1807, Robert Fulton
successfully tested his steamship invention. By the mid-1800s, steamships regularly crossed the oceans.

The real revolution in transportation came with the application of Watt's steam engine in railroads
and steamboats. Again, Britain pioneered in the development of railway transport. The railways were a key
component in the Industrial Revolution because railways reduced the cost of shipping. The railways also
developed a national market for goods, with a uniform price system. In 1825, Britain inaugurated the world's
first railway line in northeast England. George Stephenson, the son of a British miner, invented a fast steam
locomotive, named the Rocket. Stephenson's steam railway became the most popular for railroads in the
United States, Europe, and Western colonies. A feverish activity began in railroad building by the mid-19th
century.

Revolution in Communications. The railways and steamship, the canals and new roads improved
communication within nations and across the world. Britain introduced an inexpensive postal system, and
the first printed postal stamps, the penny black. Samuel F.B. Morse (US) invented the first telegraph. On
May 24, 1844, he sent the first telegraphic message which acknowledged his inspiration: "What hath God
wrought!" Messages that would have taken days or even weeks to arrive now took only minutes or seconds.
In 1851, the first underwater telegraph cable was installed under the English Channel. It made rapid
communication possible between Britain and the continent. The Americans also laid a submarine telegraph
cable under the Atlantic Ocean, which linked the US to Britain and Europe.
Spread of Industrialization. Between 1850 and 1914, industrialization spread to Western Europe and the
United States. Scientific research led to the development of technologies such as the electricity and the
internal combustion engine. Powerful corporations and banks provided the money to finance new industries.
By the 1850s, other nations began to challenge British leadership in the Industrial Revolution. Belgium was
one of the first nations on the European continent to industrialize. Like Britain, Belgium had large deposits
of iron and coal. Belgium also had a long tradition of manufacturing textiles. It had workers and
entrepreneurs needed to operate factories.

France, too, built a railroad system and a strong textile industry. In the 1800s, Joseph Marie
Jacquard invented the first power loom to weave complex patterns. It was operated by a punched card
system that controlled the patterned design. The Jacquard punched cards were also used in the early
computers, before the development of digital memory cards. The textiles produced on Jacquard looms sold
for high prices among the fashionable upper classes in Europe.

After Germany achieved unification, the discipline and resources of the new nation made it a
leading industrial power also. Across the seas, in the United States, the railways became a key sector in the
opening of the West and in the growth of the nation after the Civil War. Railroad construction brought rapid
economic growth in the US, beginning in 1869. A decade later, American coal and steel production had
exceeded that of Britain. At the turn of the century, the US moved ahead of Britain as the leading industrial
nation.
However, the Industrial Revolution did not spread to the nations of southern and eastern Europe, which
remained largely agricultural during the 1800s. In Spain, Italy, Austria and Russia, the churches and
government did little to encourage revival or progress. Hence,they remained backward.

Advances in Science and Technology. During the early Industrial Revolution, hogy ventors were looking
for ways to repair tools or improve machines. After 1850, however, people turned to science not only to
anker with gadgets but also to discover new products to manufacture. Scientific research jed to many
inventions and remarkable advances in technology. Knowledge about these new products or technology
quickly spread from one nation to another through communication or travel.

Research brought wonderful changes to industry and commerce. Chemists invented new dyes made
from coal. The textile industry quickly adopted these new dyes to replace the more costly natural dyes like
indigo. Chemical fertilizers were discovered, and food production increased some more.

An Italian physicist, Alessandro Volta, invented the first electric batteries. The steam engines were
replaced by electric rains (by Michael Faraday). Electricity made possible to have railways in city streets
trams) and even underground (subways). Discoveries in electricity improved ccommunications. In 1876,
Alexander Graham Bell, a Scottish American, invented the telephone. By the turn of the century,
Guglielmo Marconi developed a way to send electric signals without wire or cable. His invention was
called the wireless in Britain and the radio in America. The mass media was born with the invention of new
printing presses to mass-produce newspapers, books and magazines.

The use of photography and copies of photographs also spread rapidly during the 1850s, thanks to
the invention of photography by Louis Daguerre, a Frenchman. Newspapers and magazines realized the
appeal of photographs. Photographs boosted their sales and made a record of the past for future generations.
Pretty soon, everyone could afford a photograph of themselves or their family. These advances in
communication led to an explosion in knowledge throughout the world.

During this period, Thomas Alva Edison, became the greatest American inventor. Among Edison's
1,000 patents (registered inventions) were the phonograph, the electric light bulb, and the motion picture
camera. His generating plant provided the first electric light to New York City streets. When asked about the
secret of his success, Edison replied, "10% inspiration and 90% perspiration."
 The automobile and aviation industry revolutionized the transportation system. Two German
inventors patented the first automobile engines to replace the horse buggy. An American businessman,
Henry Ford, started the mass production of automobiles in 1902. By the 1920s, automobiles were a familiar
sight in the US and Europe. This new industry triggered a boom in other industries such as petroleum, steel,
and rubber materials.
Man's dream to fly like a bird was realized when the Wright brothers (Wilbur and Orville) invented
the first airplane and flew it successfully on December 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Eventually,
huge flying balloons and small airplanes made commercial flights in the skies of major world cities.

Mass Production. New machines and technology greatly improved worker productivity. Productivity
increased when a worker could turn out more goods in a specific time. This became possible due to the
assembly line and interchangeable parts. Increased productivity with the use of interchangeable or identical
parts was called "mass production." Mass production of goods started with Henry Ford and the car industry.

Henry Ford introduced the assembly line to speed up the making of cars. On an assembly line, a
worker only does one or two tasks and then the car moves to another worker until all the parts are
assembled. Because the assembly line was efficient, goods were produced more cheaply and were sold at
lower prices. Thus, mass production turned out large quantities of identical products at cheaper prices. The
early Industrial Revolution factories now turned out all kinds of goods and products that more people, not
just the rich, could afford.
GUNS OR BUTTER

In the 1840s, the Krupp steel factory in Germany had been prospering. Alfred found a way to
manufacture huge steel rolls from which spoons and forms could be cut cheaply. As railroads expanded
throughout Europe, the Krupp Works also turned-out high-quality steel rails and wheels. The iron mines in
Germany turned out a steady and cheap supply of iron ore to keep the factory going. The German workers
were used to harsh working conditions and had discipline and frugality. Then, the Krupp Works decided to
produce rifles and cannons. They invented a new cannon that could be loaded and fired more quickly and
safely than traditional cannons. The Prussian Army was supposed to be their best customer. But the Prussian
generals believed that the old-fashioned brass cannons were better than Krupp's gleaming steel models.
Furthermore, Prussia needed to improve roads, bridges and schools. The money for the building program
could not be diverted to war materials.

Alfred wrote a letter to the new King of Prussia, William I. Alfred told the king that for patriotic
reasons, he had not sold his cannons to other countries, but he could no longer turn down their orders. The
king got the point. Soon, Prussia's armed forces became the best customers of Alfred Krupp. The Krupp
cannons proved their value during the Franco-Prussian War. By 1887, the Krupp Works had 40 government
customers around the world. They had become one of the richest businessmen in Europe. The Krupp steel
works employed over 20,000 workers.

The choice for "guns or butter" faces all governments. Do they develop the society, or they do invest
in weapons to keep strong armed forces. They cannot do both. Which one will be the priority? In the case of
Germany, their governments chose to have a strong military arsenal in the 19th to mid-20th centuries.
Entrepreneurs like Alfred Krupp encouraged them to build their arsenal because it meant business for them.

Likewise, in Japan, a close relationship between the military and industrialists developed the supremacy of
military cliques. Alas, these industrial-military tie-ups bred the conditions that made war more likely.
Questions: Why should citizens be wary if government officials choose "guns instead of butter"? Why
should the military be under civilian control?
Prepared by: Rachelle Alfuente
5. Results of the Industrial Revolution

Read to Understand
 How the Industrial Revolution brought great economic progress and world peace?
 That it increased population but not the quality of workers' life
 Why the economic and social effects of the Industrial Revolution were mixed?
 What military result led to later sorrows?

The Industrial Revolution Transformed the World. Some historians claim that "the Industrial
Revolution was the greatest transformation in human history since the remote times when men invented
agriculture, the city, and the state." As a result of the Industrial Revolution, world commerce enjoyed a
tremendous increase. In the 19th century alone, world trade doubled twelve times. In one century alone,
from the 1700s to the 1800s, world wealth increased six times. The industrial revolution brought great
economic progress and material benefits to world civilization. It made Britain, Germany, France, the United
States and Japan great industrial powers. It increased the wealth of nations.

It expanded the numbers of the middle class and gave them a comfortable way of life. It gave such
conveniences as cars, trains, electric lighting radio, etc., which made life more interesting, comfortable,
enjoyable, and exciting. The Industrial Revolution contributed to world peace and progress from 1815 to
1914, European nations fought few big wars. They were more interested in manufacturing goods for a
growing population.
Both the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution led to a population explosion in
Western Europe. Between 1750 and 1914, the population of Europe grew from 140 million to 463 million
people. Improvements in labor conditions and medicine reduced the deaths caused by diseases.

But to millions of workers, the Industrial Revolution brought misery and sorrow. The old cottage
industries that flourished under the domestic system died out. The small farmers lost their land. The poor
workers had no capital to start their own business. Without jobs in their native villages, they migrated to the
cities and worked as daily wage-earners in the factories that were owned by rich capitalists. They lived in
crowded, ugly slums barely earning enough. Workers became dehumanized by the conditions in factories
and cities. Their wives and children had to work, too, in factories or mines. About two-thirds of the working
women were in factories or mines, and one-third worked as domestics in the homes of the newly rich
middle-class households. In the 1840s, workers in British factories earned an average weekly salary of 62
cents per week (or 5 per day). With this salary, they could hardly feed a family of two adults and three
children. Their diet usually consisted of bread, potatoes, turnips, and cabbage. A tiny piece of meat or fish
was a luxury. Millions of workers were underfed, and many children died at birth, or due to disease and
malnutrition. Life at factories or mines was grim and full of dangers. The early cities that grew up in the
Industrial Revolution were overcrowded and dirty. Workers lived in terrible conditions, working for low pay
and long hours.

Economic Results of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was both a blessing and a curse
to mankind. Historians continue to weigh the good as well as the bad effects of the era on people. It really
depends on how the researcher analyzes the facts, because the data and statistics from the Industrial
Revolution reveal mixed results.
In general, we can say that among the good results of the Industrial Revolution were the following:
1) expansion of industries and companies;
2) increase of commerce and trade;
3) growth of the population;
4) rise of cities;
5) greater comforts and higher standard of living for all classes;
6) rise of the middle class as the largest segment of society; and
7) increase of world wealth.
 On the other hand, the early stage of the Industrial Revolution brought terrible misery and suffering
to the working classes. Their conditions were only improved during the second stage of the Industrial
Revolution due to the campaign of churches, writers, media and social reformers.

The bad effects of the Industrial Revolution were as follows:

1) ruin of the family and small business system, causing the disappearance of small independent working
families;
2) the factory system, exploited workers;
3) the neglect of rural communities;
4) child and women labor;
5) no security of workers;
6) concentration of wealth in a few capitalists;
7) bitter class wars between capitalists and workers; and
8) rise of a military-industrial complex that led to world wars.

Social Results of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution re- shaped the social and political
structure. of Europe. Before industrialization, the highest position in society belonged to the royals and
aristocracy, and wealth was based on land. During the 1800s, however, the middle class expanded and
challenged the traditional control of the upper classes. Wealth could now be made by bankers, factory and
mine owners, managers, small businessmen, and merchants. Due to the protection of patents and copyrights,
inventors, newspaper owners, artists and writers could also become wealthy from their inventions,
publications or works. The new middle class were joined by professionals, such as doctors, lawyers,
chemists, and accountants. Some newly rich people moved to the ranks of the very rich upper classes, like
Fords. Rockefellers, Carnegies, Astors, and so on.

The newly rich middle class were very conscious of their social position. They were very sensitive to
protect their new reputations as captains of industry and pillars of the nation. They were constantly striving
to be accepted by high society, and were regarded as "social climbers."
The Industrial Revolution also produced a new social class of factory and city workers Largely
unskilled, they occupied the lowest rank in society. Industrial workers at first had little political and
economic power. By the second stage of the Industrial Revolution, they banded together to change their
working and living conditions.

The cities became a magnet for workers and dislocated farmers. New industrial cities around factories
and mines sprang up. The living conditions in cities, factories and mines were intolerable and needed
reforms.
The changing patterns of Western industrialized society created new political parties that channeled
the political positions of different social groups. For example, there were political parties for the liberals,
conservatives, labor, communists, socialists. In the next chapter, you shall read and about the important
political philosophies that guided these political parties.

Military Results of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution also had one mixed blessing, one
with long term unfortunate effects. It led to the rise of a strong policy and financial relationship between
government, national armed forces and industrialists. This special relationship was called "the military-
industrial complex." Private entrepreneurs could connive with government or the military to build more
weapons and go to war. It encouraged what later became international rivalries leading to world wars. In the
past, metal industries could adjust to peace or war easily they would make swords during wartime, or
plowshares during peacetime. But as newer more sophisticated war material were invented, it became more
lucrative to concentrate on manufacturing firearms, artillery, tanks, warships and later warplanes. The first
military-industrial complex (MIC) developed in Britain, France and Germany in the late 1800s, especially
after the Franco Prussian War.
Japan and-the United States followed later. These military expansions helped industrialized nations engage
in a new wave of imperialism abroad, as you will read in Chapter 21. Industrialists like Alfred Krupp (see
story] Samuel Colt, Alfred Nobel (of the prestigious Nobel prizes), and others profited greatly from these
MICs. In Japan, the military cliques from its samurai-bushido tradition also developed close relationships
with industrial barons. In the new German nation, the new Kaiser Wilhelm I doubled the size of the army
and developed a large navy to rival the British navy. The German armaments production exceeded that of
other European nations. Germany became the leading industrial military complex in the world. The spirit of
militarism, which was responsible for Germany's rise, would later become its undoing and the sorrow of the
entire world.

6. Responses to the Industrial Revolution

Read to Understand
 How the conditions of women and children workers brought concern
 What steps were taken to reform working conditions
 How a modified capitalist system brought improvements to workers

Demands for Change. Because the Industrial Revolution started in Britain, workers there were the first to
feel its terrible effects. As their suffering grew, they protested, demanding higher wages, better working
conditions, and protection against unemployment.
Sometimes, their protests became violent, especially in France. As we read in Chapter 17, workers in Paris
helped overthrow the French monarchy in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. They also helped to build the
barricades during the Paris Commune revolt in 1871.

Between 1811 and 1816, workers in many parts of Britain smashed machines in factories. In 1819, a
demonstration in Manchester drew a peaceful protest of about 80,000 workers demanding reforms. But
nervous army soldiers fired on the crowd, killing 11 men and women, and wounding about 400. At the time,
the British leaders had no sympathy for the workers, and they applauded the shooting. Very little was known
about the actual conditions in the factories, and the educated public had no idea of the truth.

Little by little, the ugly truth came out in newspapers, magazines and books by concerned writers.
The power of the pen was great and social commentators exposed the ugly face of capitalism, without fear
or favor. Newspaper journalists awakened thousands of wealthy readers to the appalling poverty of workers
in factories and mines. A returning plantation owner from America was quoted as saying, "I have always
thought myself disgraced by being the owner of slaves, but never in the West Indies did we think it possible
for any human being to be so cruel as to require a child of nine years to work twelve and a half hours a day."
Thus, the campaign to improve worker conditions was connected to the previous century's successful
abolition of slavery.

Charles Dickens, a novelist, was especially active in attacking the evils of child labor in his novels Oliver
Twist and David Copperfield. He also attacked the callous attitude of the wealthy in a character called
"Mister Scrooge," in his novel, A Christmas Carol. In France, Victor Hugo's Les Miserables revealed the
misery of French workers.

In 1831, the British Parliament agreed to begin investigating factory and mine conditions. Capitalists
and the new middle class opposed reforms-because they claimed government should not interfere in
business. Yet, the findings of the investigators shocked even those who were opposed to reform. A cotton-
mill worker told the parliamentary inquiry how the workday of his family lasted from six in the morning
until half past eight at night. His wife and children also worked in the factory. He and his wife "cried often
when we have given them. children) the little food we had to give them; we had to shake them, or they
would have fallen asleep with the food in their mouths."
 A 17-year old girl described her work in a coal mine. She crawled on her hands and knees to pull a
cart loaded with coal through the narrow mine shafts. She could not stand up. She worked for twelve hours
every day.

Gains for Workers. The British Parliament decided to act after these investigations. It passed a number of
laws in the late 1800s which greatly improved the workers conditions, and banned the use of women and
children in mines.

Between 1870 and 1914, the conditions of industrial workers improved greatly due to these labor
laws. Good working conditions improved the productivity of workers and made goods cheaper. Gradually,
employers came to realize that workers were more productive in a safer, healthier environment. Factories
were made safer and more sanitary. When employers refused to make improvements, governments passed
laws to ensure better conditions. Britain, Germany, and France led in making factory codes to set minimum
standards for wages, safety and sanitary conditions.

Governments also took other steps to ensure workers futures. They passed laws to protect workers' in
case of unemployment, accidents, sickness and old age. By 1914, workers enjoyed a much better standard of
living than workers had 100 years ago. They could look forward to a better future for their children. By then,
free public schools had been set up in all the industrial countries. Moreover, living conditions in cities had
improved.

The first capitalist nations like Britain and the United States voluntarily modified the ugly face of
their industrialization through the passage of workers' laws. Rise of Labor Unions. Labor unions arose first
in Britain. At first, they drew strong opposition from the government and employers. But gradually, the
workers won their battle to be allowed to organize into unions.

In Britain, skilled workers were able to bargain with employers and lawmakers. By 1868, over
100,000 workers belonged to trade (skilled labor) unions. Two years later, unskilled workers won the same
rights as the skilled workers. By the end of the century, union membership had grown rapidly in Britain and
in the rest of Europe, and the United States. By the early 1900s, even the poor had the money to spend on
the products of the industries they worked for. Living conditions had improved for industrial Workers.

Prepared by: Jessa H. Martinete