energies

Article
A Novel Dual Receiver–Storage Design for Concentrating Solar
Thermal Plants Using Beam-Down Optics
David Saldivia 1 and Robert A. Taylor 2, *

1 School of Photovoltaics and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; [email protected]
2 School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Advanced power cycles—such as the supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2 ) cycle—have the
potential to reduce the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of concentrated solar thermal power (CST)
plants by significantly boosting their overall solar-to-electric efficiency. To successfully integrate
these cycles into CST plants, the industry may need to transition away from liquid working fluids
(e.g., synthetic oils and molten salts) to solid and/or gaseous heat transfer media, which are more
stable at high temperatures. To address this challenge, this study investigates a novel rotating
receiver–storage unit that could enable high-temperature CST plants. A validated numerical model
is presented for the charging and discharging processes of the proposed design. It was found that
with cast steel as the storage medium in the proposed design, it is possible to achieve >70% receiver
efficiency for operation temperatures of 850–1000 K. The overall plant model shows this design is
best for relatively small CST systems as modularized units of 10 m diameter (reaching an energy
density around 80 kWh/m3 ), which can be used to drive a 5 MWe sCO2 CST plant. These findings
suggest that such a design would have up to 9 h of storage and could be effectively employed as an
efficient peaking plant.

Keywords: concentrated solar thermal; beam-down receiver; solid heat transfer medium; dual
receiver-storage unit

Citation: Saldivia, D.; Taylor, R.A. A

Novel Dual Receiver–Storage Design
for Concentrating Solar Thermal 1. Introduction
Plants Using Beam-Down Optics. Transitioning to an economy powered by renewables represents the key to mitigating
Energies 2023, 16, 4157. https:// the impacts of climate change and achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development
doi.org/10.3390/en16104157 Goals [1]. Concentrated solar thermal (CST) electricity generation plants are expected to
Academic Editor: Luisa F. Cabeza play a vital role in the future sustainable energy portfolio due to their inherent capacity to
incorporate low-cost thermal energy storage. In this low-carbon emissions future, energy
Received: 14 April 2023 storage is critical to cover the natural intermittencies of renewable resources and shift
Revised: 5 May 2023
generation to peaking periods [2]. Nowadays, CST plants have a higher levelized cost of
Accepted: 9 May 2023
electricity (LCOE) than other renewables [3,4]. One way to reduce LCOE in CST plants
Published: 17 May 2023
is by transitioning towards higher temperatures and correspondingly higher thermal
efficiency cycles, which would require replacing conventional CST heat transfer mediums
(synthetic oils and molten salts), which are constrained to relatively low temperatures
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
(i.e., below 600 ◦ C) [5,6]. Numerous solid mediums are available without such temperature
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. limitations, but the few proposed designs (e.g., volumetric and falling particle receivers)
This article is an open access article have had limited success in the market [7]. As an alternative—and potentially simpler and
distributed under the terms and more efficient—option, this paper investigates an innovative modular concept of bringing
conditions of the Creative Commons concentrated light down onto a rotating solid medium. Although this concept introduces
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// some engineering challenges, bringing the light directly onto the storage medium essentially
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ bypasses the use of a liquid working fluid (i.e., no solar loop) and can be designed to allow
4.0/). the high-temperature gaseous working fluid for the power cycle (i.e., pressurized sCO2 ) to

Energies 2023, 16, 4157. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104157 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 4157 2 of 23

extract heat directly from the receiver–storage module to increase the overall efficiency of
the CSP plant.
Beam-down receivers (BDRs) work by redirecting the radiation onto the ground,
where the final receiver is located. This is accomplished by a secondary reflector that is
located at the top of the tower, where the conventional receiver would have been originally
located. Although this idea was proposed in the seventies and eighties [8], the seminal
works in this technology were developed in the early 2000s, when the optics, possible
applications, and proof-of-concept tests were carried out by Segal and Epstein [9–11]. They
compared two secondary reflectors: an ellipsoid (concave) and a hyperboloid (convex),
concluding that the hyperboloid provides the best performance. In theory, BDRs can
achieve higher concentration ratios and correspondingly higher thermal efficiencies in the
ground-mounted thermal receiver. The main benefits of BDRs are their simpler structure,
lower parasitic consumption, and lower impact of wind-associated losses (advective and
convective). However, their main drawback is their lower overall optical efficiency due
to additional optical devices. Additionally, the same authors found that adding a tertiary
(CPC) receiver can increase the overall optical efficiency; however, they also showed how
a BDR geometry has an upper bound on the size of the plant since it limits the thermal
power up to ~50 MWth [10].
Several experimental facilities have tested the beam-down receiver (BDR) concept.
The first experimental facility built with this concept was developed by the Weizmann
Institute of Science in Israel [11] in 1999. The plant has a nominal capacity of 0.7 MWth
with a 75 m2 hyperboloid mirror and a 2.2 m-aperture diameter CPC. On other hand, the
Masdar Institute built and tested a beam-down facility in the UAE since 2011 [12]. This unit,
called CSPonD (concentrated solar power on demand demonstration), includes 280.7 m2 of
heliostats and is designed for a nominal heat input of 100 kWth with a concentration ratio
of up to 600 and an optical efficiency of up to 77% [13]. In an additional stage, a 600 kWh
molten salt storage tank was incorporated [13,14], with an overall thermal performance in
the range of 24–28% (using an idealized Carnot cycle) [15]. A scale-up analysis predicts a
LCOE of ~0.1 USD/kWh for a plant of 50 MWe [16]. Finally, the University of Miyazaki
(Japan), developed another BDR facility in 2012, which also has a 100 kWth nominal power
output and a 176 m2 primary collection area. The main difference between this system
and the previous ones is that it uses an ellipsoid mirror, and its purpose is thermochemical
water splitting [17].
On the other hand, a couple of commercial plants have been installed. The Italian
company Magaldi Industrie installed the first documented commercial plant using beam-
down optics. In 2012, a 100 kWth experimental plant was built in Buccino (Italy) [18].
Then, in 2016, the company started operating a 2 MWth plant in S. Filippo Del Mela (Italy)
designed to generate 20.5 tons/day of steam [19]. The system uses a four-facet hyperboloid
or flat mirror as a secondary reflector, 786 heliostats of 7 m2 each, heating a 270-ton sand
tank of 8.2 MWh of thermal capacity. The Yumen Xinneng, Xinchen, in, China, is the only
commercial plant currently in operation. The 50 MWe plant is a multi-tower plant that
opened its first unit in 2021 and consists of 5 towers that are 70 m each and heat molten
salt [20]. The plant has nine hours of storage capacity to drive a conventional steam cycle
with dry cooling. The solar field has 208240 m2 of mirror area installed on a site with a
total area of 3.69 km2 . Finally, a second beam-down CSP project is under construction in
Akesai Jiuquan, China [21]. The project, called Huidong New Energy Akesai, is a hybrid
110 MW CSP + 640 MW PV and is part of the massive portfolio of hybrid projects currently
under construction in China. It consists of a conventional steam cycle with 8 h of molten
salt thermal storage. It is expected to be operational by the end of 2023 [21].
Despite this continued interest in the beam-down receiver, there has been little in-
vestigation into how a beam-down receiver could incorporate solid storage materials. In
one example, a numerical simulation of a dual beam-down receiver–storage unit with
conductive rods in a sand-basalt mixture has been shown to reach a utilisation ratio of up
to 73% [22]. In addition, a gravity-fed receiver concept for sand particles was proposed
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Energies 2023, 16, 4157 3 of 23

[22]. In addition, a gravity-fed receiver concept for sand particles was proposed by Iniesta
et al. [23] and tested experimentally, which reached up to 900 °C for a 2 kW BDR. How-
by Iniesta et al. [23] and tested experimentally, which reached up to 900 ◦ C for a 2 kW
ever, the agglomeration of the particles at operation temperatures above 600 °C created◦ a
BDR. However, the agglomeration of the particles at operation temperatures above 600 C
reliability issue for this type of sand. Finally, a beam-down Fresnel-like linear receiver was
created a reliability issue for this type of sand. Finally, a beam-down Fresnel-like linear
proposed by Gómez-González et al. [24] in 2018. To date, although the BDR represents a
receiver was proposed by Gómez-González et al. [24] in 2018. To date, although the BDR
straightforward design that is capable of reaching high concentration ratios, the literature
represents a straightforward design that is capable of reaching high concentration ratios,
on
thebeam-down
literature onreceivers
beam-down has mostly
receivers been
hasdedicated
mostly been to either
dedicatedthe optics
to eitheror their use for
the optics or
conventional heat transfer mediums (such as molten salts). Therefore,
their use for conventional heat transfer mediums (such as molten salts). Therefore, the high the high tempera-
ture potentialpotential
temperature of BDRs of(e.g.,
BDRsvia(e.g.,
solidvia
materials) has not been
solid materials) has not explored in detail.in detail.
been explored
The
The proposed system considers a directly irradiated receiver–storage device
proposed system considers a directly irradiated receiver–storage device thatthat
absorbs and stores solar energy simultaneously. Since the receiver
absorbs and stores solar energy simultaneously. Since the receiver is located on the ground is located on the
ground and contains
and contains a lot of thermal
a lot of thermal mass, it mass,
requiresit requires
beam-down beam-down
optics tooptics
deliver toconcentrated
deliver con-
centrated radiation to the absorber surface. The thermal transport
radiation to the absorber surface. The thermal transport subsystem is simplified subsystem is simplified
with
with this concept
this concept (relative
(relative to atovolumetric
a volumetric airair receiver
receiver orora afalling
fallingparticle
particle receiver),
receiver), which
which
enables
enables aa reduction
reduction in in parasitic
parasitic pumping
pumping power
power consumption
consumption and and in
in the
the exergetic
exergetic losses
losses
associated
associated with transferring heat between separate receiver and storage components. The
with transferring heat between separate receiver and storage components. The
proposed
proposed design
design uses
uses aa simple,
simple, solid
solid cylindrical
cylindrical unit
unit that
that is is insulated
insulated onon all
all sides
sides except
except
for
for aa small
small window
window on on the
the top
top that
that receives
receives concentrated
concentrated irradiance,
irradiance, asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 11
(left). Candidate
Candidate materials
materialsfor forthethe cylinder
cylinder include
include concrete,
concrete, cast steel,
cast steel, magnesia magnesia fire
fire bricks,
bricks,
ceramics,ceramics,
etc. etc.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. (left)
(left) Scheme of proposed
Scheme of proposedsolution
solutionduring
duringcharging
chargingstage
stageofofone
one storage
storage unit.
unit. (right)
(right) Lay-
Layout
out of proposed system with eight storage
of proposed system with eight storage units. units.

The
The main
main difference
difference with this design over a traditional high-temperature
high-temperature sensible
sensible
thermal
thermal storage
storage unit
unit is
is that
that charging
charging relies
relies upon
upon radiation
radiation (and(and subsequent
subsequent conduction)
conduction)
rather
rather than
than convective
convective heatheat transfer
transfer with
with aa circulating
circulating heat transfer fluid. Thus, Thus, even
even more
more
so
so than
than aa shell-tube
shell-tube sensible
sensible storage
storage unit,
unit, this
this design
design depends
depends on on the
the thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity
of
of the
the material.
material. LowLow thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity would
would result
result inin high
high stratification
stratification in
in the
the storage
storage
unit and,
unit and, consequently,
consequently, low storage effectiveness
effectiveness (e.g.,
(e.g., only
only aa small
small proportion
proportion of of total
total
storage capacity
storage capacitycan canbebeeffectively
effectively used). In addition,
used). In addition,low low
thermal conductivity
thermal wouldwould
conductivity result
in hotspots
result at the focal
in hotspots at thespot
focalof spot
the receiver, which would
of the receiver, whichinduce
wouldhigherinduceradiative losses.
higher radiative
To
losses. distribute the heat, we considered the use of conductive rods and a recirculating
gas but
To settled
distributeon athe
novel
heat,alternative: rotating
we considered the the
usespot relative to rods
of conductive the storage tank. That is,
and a recirculating
as shown
gas in Figure
but settled 1, if the
on a novel solar focal
alternative: spot isthe
rotating notspot
concentrically
relative to the located with
storage theThat
tank. central
is,
axis
as of theincylinder,
shown Figure 1,then thesolar
if the heatfocal
can be spread
spot is notinconcentrically
the theta directionlocated bywith
slowlytherotating
central
the focal
axis of thespot relativethen
cylinder, to the
thestorage
heat canunit
be(or by manually
spread in the thetarotating the cylinder
direction by slowlyrelative to a
rotating
fixed focal spot). This should reduce heat losses, increase efficiency, and
the focal spot relative to the storage unit (or by manually rotating the cylinder relative to promote a more
homogeneous charging process.
 Energies 2023, 16, 4157 4 of 23

Clearly, the geometry of this type of storage unit critically affects the effectiveness and
temperature distribution during charging/discharging. To obtain a good balance between
storage volume (total storage capacity) and charging effectiveness (usage of the stored
energy), which are inversely related, multiple modular storage cylinders can be used to
obtain the desired capacity. As shown in Figure 1 (right), once one unit is charged, the
following unit can be rotated in as the active receiver. This modular concept also serves as
a form of control to ensure optimal charging and avoid overheating zones. Moreover, the
modular design allows heat extraction from the modules to occur in series and/or parallel
with the charging process to better match the solar resource.
As was alluded to previously, it is envisioned that this storage system would drive
a high-temperature supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle. Therefore, the heat extraction will
require supercritical CO2 fluid to pass through a piping array inside the storage unit. One
of the challenges for the discharging process of a solid storage medium is to ensure a
stable fluid mass flow rate and temperature output for the cycle when the sensible storage
unit’s temperature is decreasing over time. A stable temperature and mass flow rate
output from the storage system are some of the biggest advantages of the conventional
two-tank configuration. The proposed system will be compared with that conventional
configuration. In order to reach that feature, several possible configurations are explored.
The discharging process can also be done in series or in parallel to precisely control the
inlet conditions in advanced power cycles, with no need for thermal stratification since
each module would naturally be at different states of charge (e.g., average temperature).
Two operation modes are proposed after testing different alternatives. A general setup for
the different configurations between two tanks was developed and can be checked in the
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5
Appendix B. With the proposed modular design, two different operation modes, which are
shown in Figure 2, are proposed to extract thermal energy:

Figure2.2.Discharge
Figure Dischargecontrol operation
control modes.modes.
operation
(a) Stand-alone operation of one cylinder. If one storage cylinder can provide the desired
It should
extracted be noted
energy, then itthat
can several additional strategies
operate independently. were
In this case, onlyconsidered
a fraction of for
the this de
but these were
total mass found
flow to provide
rate would the
circulate bestthis
inside results andwhile
cylinder, were thethe most easily
remaining fractioncontrolle
woulddiscussion
detailed be mixed with the general
of the hotter stream.
setupOver
andtime, the fractionpossible
the different increasesconfigurations
until all the is g
flow goes through this cylinder. At this point, it is necessary to change
in the Appendix B. For example, using parallel flow between two cylinders and adjus the operation
mode because the cylinder is unable to provide the desired output.
the splitting fraction could also be used to ensure a constant output temperature and fl
(b) Partial-series flow between low-temperature (LT) and high-temperature (HT) cylinders. In
However, the above
this strategy, mode
the whole (b)passes
flow wouldfirstextract theone
through most possible
unit, energy from(LT)
the low-temperature the LT cyli
because
cylinder. As required, a fraction of this flow is diverted to subsequently circulate it the m
the total mass flow rate always circulates through this cylinder, giving
time/opportunity to discharge. This enables higher energy extraction, more opera
time, and a higher stored energy density in each cylinder. Thus, the discharge pro
strategy in the present work will consist of operation mode (a) when possible, follo
by operation mode (b).
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 5 of 23

through a high-temperature (HT) cylinder to obtain a high enough temperature that

when the two flows are remixed at the outlet manifold, they provide the required CO2
Brayton cycle inlet temperature (and flow rate). During this process, the temperature
of both cylinders decreases, so a gradually higher flow fraction must be diverted into
the HT cylinder. The process finishes when all the flow circulates in a series mode,
which means no more energy can be extracted from this layout. After that, a new HT
cylinder is required, and the previous HT cylinder can become the LT cylinder.
It should be noted that several additional strategies were considered for this design,
but these were found to provide the best results and were the most easily controlled. For
example, using parallel flow between two cylinders and adjusting the splitting fraction
could also be used to ensure a constant output temperature and flow. However, the above
mode (b) would extract the most possible energy from the LT cylinder because the total
mass flow rate always circulates through this cylinder, giving it the most time/opportunity
to discharge. This enables higher energy extraction, more operation time, and a higher
stored energy density in each cylinder. Thus, the discharge process strategy in the present
work will consist of operation mode (a) when possible, followed by operation mode (b).
It should be noted that several additional strategies were considered for this design,
but these were found to provide the best results and were the most easily controlled. A
detailed discussion of the general setup and the different possible configurations is given
in the Appendix B. For example, using parallel flow between two cylinders and adjusting
the splitting fraction could also be used to ensure a constant output temperature and flow.
However, the above mode (b) would extract the most possible energy from the LT cylinder
because the total mass flow rate always circulates through this cylinder, giving it the most
time/opportunity to discharge. This enables higher energy extraction, more operation
time, and a higher stored energy density in each cylinder. Thus, the discharge process
strategy in the present work will consist of operation mode (a) when possible, followed by
operation mode (b).
In addition, to increase the overall temperature difference, a third storage cylinder can
be used as a preheater (PH). A preheater can operate in the same way as the low and high
temperature units but requires a lower temperature level. The use of a PH unit produces
a cascade effect, which allows a more efficient charging process because PH and LT units
work at lower temperatures than HT. These operation modes are presented schematically
in Figure 2. Consequently, mode (b) requires at least three storage units: a preheater (PH), a
low-temperature (LT) cylinder, and a high-temperature (HT) cylinder. This operation mode
will be analyzed in detail in the overall plant analysis section.

2. Materials and Methods

To test and analyze this receiver–storage concept, a numerical model was built. The
numerical model was based on heat transfer equations for conduction, convection, and
radiation. The storage system assumes the two different processes occur independently:
(1) rotational charging from a concentrated solar flux and (2) discharging via conduction
and convection to a flowing supercritical CO2 fluid.

2.1. Charging Process

For the charging process, the storage unit was assumed to be a solid cylinder. Therefore,
inside the volume of the unit, conduction represents the only heat transfer mechanism.
In order to ensure that this assumption is acceptable, a design constraint was introduced
(see Equation (24)) to ensure the volume occupied by internal piping (needed for the
discharging) was limited to less than 10% of the total volume. To simulate this, the
energy conservation equation was used in its differential three-dimensional transient form,
assuming constant thermophysical properties:

∂2 Tst ∂2 Tst ∂2 Tst 1 ∂Tst

2
+ 2
+ = , (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z2 α ∂t
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 6 of 23

where Tst is the storage material temperature, α = λ/ ρc p is the thermal diffusivity of the
material, x and y are the horizontal coordinates, z is the vertical coordinate, and t represents
the temporal variable. At first glance, a Cartesian coordinate system seems more compli-
cated than cylindrical coordinates for a cylindrical block. However, Cartesian coordinates
have the same element sizes throughout the volume and are useful for the implementation
of the boundary conditions of this problem. Equation (1) can be numerically solved using a
finite volume method for spatial discretisation and the fully implicit scheme for temporal
discretisation. For each discrete (non-boundary) element, the governing numerical equation
can be written as:
h      im+1
m


1 + 2r x + 2ry + 2rz Ti,j,k − r x Ti−1,j,k + Ti+1,j,k − ry Ti,j−1,k + Ti,j+1,k − rz Ti,j,k−1 + Ti,j,k+1 = Ti,j,k , (2)

where rn = α∆t/∆n, for n = x, y, z, and m is the temporal step. This is valid for i = 1 . . . Nx ,
j = 1 . . . Ny , and k = 1 . . . Nz .
The cylinder’s outer boundary was assumed to be well-insulated, so adiabatic bound-
aries were employed on the bottom and around the outside surface of the cylinder. For
the top surface, an adiabatic boundary was also applied, with the exception of the re-
ceiver window area, which was matched to the focal spot diameter, which transmits the
incident light.
A Cartesian coordinate system was used, so it was necessary to identify the elements
of storage belonging to the curved surface of the cylinder. To handle this, a function ( f st )
was defined to evaluate if the elements belong ( f st = 1.0) or do not ( f st = 0.0) to the storage
unit. For most boundary elements, f st takes a fractional value. A brief explanation of
this function is presented in Appendix A. A similar function ( f r ) was used to define the
elements under the receiver.
For the elements exposed to concentrated radiation, Equation (2) is not valid because
the external energy input and heat losses must be considered. For these receiver elements
(k = 0; f r > 0.0), the energy equation becomes:
h     i m +1 rz dz  
m


1 + 2r x + 2ry + rz Ti,j,0 − r x Ti−1,j,0 + Ti+1,j,0 − ry Ti,j−1,0 + Ti,j+1,0 − rz Ti,j,1 = Ti,j,0 + Qin,ij0 − Qij0− g , (3)
k
where Qin,ij0 and Qij0− g , are the incident solar flux and the heat losses for element ij0. For
elements under the receiver, the inlet flux of energy can be calculated from Equation (4).


Qin,ij0 = qcsr τg αst Az,ij0 , (4)

where qcsr is concentrated solar radiation in the beam-down receiver (in W/m2 ), τg is the
transmittance of the quartz receiver, αst is the absorptance of the storage medium, and
Az,ij0 is the surface area of the element. In order to ensure simplicity, the solar flux was
considered to be uniformly distributed.
The proposed design includes a quartz cover to reduce heat losses, which was con-
sidered in the numerical model as only one element. The heat losses were calculated
considering convection and radiation heat transfer between the surface elements and the
quartz cover. The heat loss flux, a combined convection–radiation coefficient, and the
linearized radiation coefficient are presented in Equations (5)–(7).


Qij0− g = hrc,ij0− g Az,ij0 Tij0 − Tg (5)

hrc,ij0− g = hr,ij0− g + hc,ij0− g (6)

 
σ Tg + Tij0 Tg2 + Tij0
2
hr,ij0− g = A
  (7)
1 1
est + Az,ij0
g eg − 1
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 7 of 23

The convective heat transfer between the cylinder’s surface and the quartz was calcu-
lated by assuming an air gap at atmospheric pressure via correlations for natural convection
between horizontal plates [25]:
  
 0.195Ra


1/4
if(0.5 < Pr < 2.0) ∧ 104 < Ra < 4 · 105
 
Nuijk− g = 0.068Ra 1/3
if ( 0.5 < Pr < 2.0 ) ∧ 4 · 105
≤ Ra < 10 7 (8)

0.069Ra1/3 Pr0.074

other case


For the heat transfer between the quartz cover and the environment, both convective
and radiative heat transfer must be considered. In this case, the radiative heat transfer is
between the quartz cover and the sky, while the convective heat transfer is between the
quartz cover and the surroundings (e.g., the ambient air temperature). In addition, the
natural convection correlation for the horizontal flat plate was used to define hc ,g-amb .
 

Q g−amb = hr,g−sky A g Tg − Tsky + hc,g− amb A g Tg − Tamb (9)

  
hr,g−sky = eg σA g Tg + Tsky Tg2 + Tsky
2
(10)

0.54Ra1/4 if 104 < Ra < 107




0.15Ra1/3 if 107 ≤ Ra < 109


Nug− amb = (11)
1.52( T − T )1/3 ( L/λ)

other case
s amb

2.2. Discharging Process

The discharging process considers the heat transfer between the supercritical fluid and
the wall of the tube array, located inside the storage cylinder. The model assumes that each
tube has the same mass flow rate, which extracts thermal energy from the surrounding
volume of storage material. In addition, it was assumed that when the storage material
reached a thermodynamic equilibrium, there would only be conduction in the vertical
direction because the discharge process would extract energy first from the bottom part
of the cylinder. In order to take this phenomenon into consideration, the cylinder was
discretised vertically, and each element of the storage was assumed to be lumped system
(e.g., each element has a uniform temperature).
The equations that represent this phenomenon are:
.
  .
m f c p, f ,k T f ,o,k − T f ,i,k = Qc,k (12)

∂Tst,k ∂T ∂T .
mst,k c p,st,k = −k st Ast st,o,k + k st Ast st,i,k − Qc,k (13)
∂t ∂z ∂z
.  
Qc,k = hc,k Ac Tst,k − T f ,k , (14)

where subscripts f , st, i, o represent flow, storage, inlet, and outlet, respectively. Ac = πD p ∆z
represents the convective area, with D p as pipe diameter and ∆z as the vertical discretisation.
Subscript k in Equation (12) represents the element in the vertical discretisation in these
. .
equations as well. Qc,k is the convective heat transfer. Replacing Qc,k with the right-hand-
side of Equation (14) in both Equations
 (12) and (13)
 and considering a linear temperature
increase in the flow side T f ,k = T f ,k,o + T f ,k,i /2 results in an implicit system valid for
k = 1 . . . Nz , which can be represented as follows:
. m +1
2m f c p, f ,k T fm,k + hc,k Ac Tst,k
T fm,k+1 = . (15)
2m f c p, f ,k + hc,k Ac
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 8 of 23

m +1 m +1 m +1 m +1 m
[1 + 2r1 + r2 ] Tst,k − r1 Tst,k +1 − r1 Tst,k−1 − r2 T f m,k = Tst,k , (16)

where m is the timestep, r1 = k∆t/ ∆z2 ρst c p,st , and r2 = hc πD p ∆t/ Aρc p st . The con-

vective heat transfer coefficient is calculated using the well-known Gnielinski correlation
for transition and turbulent flow [26] and a developing flow correlation for laminar flow
developed by Kakaç et al. [26]:

0.0018

 3.66 +  1/3   2/3 2 if(Re < 2300)
 x 0.04 + x
D p Pe D p Pe
Nu f −st = , (17)
( f /8)(Re−1000)Pr
if(Re > 2300)

 0.5 2/3
1+12.7( f /8) (Pr −1)


where Pe and Re are the Peclet and Reynolds numbers for circular pipes, and f is the
Darcy friction factor, calculated with the Haaland approximation of the Colebrook–White
equation [26]. All the properties for sCO2 were calculated using the Cantera module for
Python [27]. This model also uses the lumped approximation for each element, neglecting
the conduction inside the storage section. This approximation is valid for Bi < 0.1, which
is not met by typical solid storage materials. To fix this issue, Xu et al. [28] proposed an
extension of the lumped method that defined an equivalent heat transfer coefficient, he f f ,
that takes into account both convection and internal conduction. For storage material with
fluid flowing inside a tube, the Xu et al. method for equivalent HTC is:
! −1
1 a3 4b2 − a2 + ab4 (4ln (b/a) − 3)


1
he f f = + 2
, (18)
hc kr 4( b2 − a2 )
p
Here, a = D p /2 and b = Dst / 4Np for the present system. D p and Np are the
diameter and number of pipes inside the storage cylinder. This correction reduces the
effective heat transfer coefficient, and it depends strongly on the storage material’s ther-
mal conductivity. As an example, for hc = 100 Wm−2 K−1 and the geometry used in
the discussion (Section 3.1), the correction ranges from a 3.2% reduction for cast steel
(i.e., he f f = 96.8 Wm−2 K−1 at the highest thermal conductivity tested) to 48.2%
(i.e., he f f = 51.8 Wm−2 K−1 at the lowest thermal conductivity tested).
During the discharge process, the two cylinders will operate in the “partial-series”
operation mode (b) described above. Thus, the discharge output will be the combination
of the flows from both the HT and the LT cylinders, which can be determined mathemati-
cally with:
. . .
m f c p, f T f ,o = m LT c p, f TLT,o + m HT c p, f THT,o (19)

. . .
m f = m LT + m HT (20)
. .

Note that for each timestep, the proportion m LT /m HT will be changed to ensure a
desired T f ,o .

2.3. Non-Dimensional and Performance Parameters

The model is designed to work with different storage unit volumes, solar field sizes,
and power block capacities. In order to simulate this system over a broad range and achieve
meaningful results, several non-dimensional parameters were defined via normalizing
based on geometry. To define the receiver size for a given storage volume, a receiver-to-
storage surface ratio (RSSR) was defined, which provides the ratio between the receiver area
and the transversal storage area. In addition, the height-to-diameter ratio for the storage
cylinder was used (HDR), along with the eccentricity receiver ratio (ER), a parameter that
defines how far off centre the irradiance spot is located. Further, the ratio of unused storage,
Run , was defined as the proportion of storage volume that is occupied by the pipe bundle.
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 9 of 23

For the purpose of this work, this ratio was limited to Run ≤ 0.1. So, for a given pipe
diameter (D p ), with Run set, it is possible to define the number of pipes inside each unit.
2
πrr2

Ar 2rr
RSSR = = 2 /4
= (21)
Ast πDst Dst
Hst
HDR = (22)
Dst

decc
ER = (23)
rr

Np π4 D2p
2
Dp

Run = π 2 = Np (24)
4 Dst
Dst
These parameters are expected to impose geometric limitations on the system’s perfor-
mance. For example, the receiver radius is fixed for a given receiver capacity. Then a large
storage diameter (i.e., a low RSSR) would mean a smaller fraction of storage volume is
used. This means the energy density would decrease, and the charging time would increase.
Following similar arguments, HDR and Run would impact charging and discharging times,
respectively, imposing additional constraints.
On the other hand, five performance parameters were used to assess the storage
behaviour. The receiver–storage efficiency (ηr ) was calculated as the ratio between input
energy and stored energy (Equation (25)). The stored energy density (SED) was defined
as volume-specific stored energy (Equation (26) below). The solar multiple (SM) was
calculated as the ratio between solar field capacity and the power cycle’s nominal capacity
(Equation (27) below), while the time ratio (Rt ) is a parameter that relates the charging
and discharging times (see Equation (28) below). Lastly, the daily delivered energy (Eel ) is
defined as the energy that can be dispatched by the power plant considering both the time
of discharge and the nominal power capacity of the plant (Equation (29)).
Nt
∑


ρc p V n
( Tn − Tini )
Qst ∼ n =1
ηr = = (25)
Qin qsun Ar
Nt
∑


ρc p V n
( Tn,st − Tini,st )
Qst ∼ n =1
SED = = (26)
Vst Nt
∑ Vn
n =1

qcsr Ar G CAr Gbn As f

SM = = bn =   (27)
Pel Pth ηel mCO2 c p, f T f ,out − T f ,in ηel

tch
Rt = (28)
tds

Eel = Pel tds (29)

In these equations, Nt is the total number of elements in spatial discretisation, Tini is the
−
initial storage temperature, Tst is the average storage temperature, Gbn = 1000 W/m2 , and
C = 1000(−) represents the direct normal beam irradiance and the concentration ratio,
respectively. As f is the solar field area, which was calculated for a given (qcsr Ar ).

2.4. Validation
The charging process model cannot be validated directly for high temperature ‘on-sun’
desired conditions since this is a new design. Thus, validation was done for a situation
 The charging process model cannot be validated directly for high temperature
2.4. Validation
sun’ desired conditions since this is a new design. Thus, validation was done for a s
tion The charging
in which process
a similar model cannot
phenomenon be validated
exists. In this case, directly for high
the process of temperature
stir welding
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 sun’
used,desired conditions
which includes since common
several this is a new design. Thus,
characteristics withvalidation
the current wasprocess:
done
10 of 23 for as
a mo
tion
heat in which spot)
(circular a similar
sourcephenomenon exists. In
over a horizontal this case,
surface, the process
conductive heatoftransfer
stir welding
inside
used,
medium, which
andincludes
natural several
convectivecommon characteristics
and radiative losses atwith
high the current process:
temperatures a mo
in a horizo
heat
in (circular
face-up
which asurface.
similarspot)
Zhu source
and Chao
phenomenon over a[29]
exists. horizontal
In have
this surface,
modelled
case, the conductive
and
process heat
of experimentally
stir welding transfer
was testedinside
used, a fric
which
medium, includes
stir welding several
andprocess common
naturalusing
convectivecharacteristics
and radiative
304L steel. with
The steel platesthe current
losses athave process:
high a
temperatures
dimensions of 304.8
moving heat 101
in a horizo
(circular spot) source over a horizontal surface, conductive heat transfer inside the medium,
3.18 mm,surface.
face-up the pinZhu is 19.05
tool and Chaomm [29]ofhave modelled
diameter, and
and it moves at 1.693 mm/s
experimentally tested a fric
with a
and natural convective and radiative losses at high temperatures in a horizontal face-up
stir
malwelding
power input of 760
process using W.304L
Three steel. The steel plates
thermocouples were have dimensions
located
surface. Zhu and Chao [29] have modelled and experimentally tested a friction stir welding
of 304.8
in the middle of the101
le
3.18
platemm,
process the304L
atusing pin steel.
different tool isThe
distances19.05 mm
from
steel ofhave
the
plates diameter,
longitudinal
dimensionsandaxis
itofmoves
(e.g.,×at
304.8 at 1.693
18
101.6 mm, mm/s
× 3.18 21mm,
mm, with a
and
mal
mm). power
Figureinput
3 of
shows 760 theW. Three
temperature thermocouples
profiles were
over located
time
the pin tool is 19.05 mm of diameter, and it moves at 1.693 mm/s with a thermal power in
between the middle
Zhou’s of the
experimele
input
plate
testingof 760
atand W.
ourThree
different thermocouples
distances
simulation. werelongitudinal
fromresults
The the located
are in good in theaxis
middle of the
(e.g.,
agreement length
atin18 plate
mm,of
terms 21 at theand
mm,
both hea
different
mm). distances
Figureand
rate (slope) from
3 shows the longitudinal
the temperature
the maximum axis (e.g.,
temperatures. at 18 mm, 21 mm, and 26.5 mm).
profiles over time between Zhou’s experime Figure 3
shows the temperature profiles over time between Zhou’s experimental testing and our
testing and our simulation. The results are in good agreement in terms of both the hea
simulation. The results are in good agreement in terms of both the heating rate (slope) and
ratemaximum
the (slope) and the maximum temperatures.
temperatures.

Figure 3. Comparison between experimental results (extracted from Zhu and Chao [29]) and s
lations for welding process. Simulation in lines, experimental data in dots.
Figure3.3.Comparison
Figure Comparisonbetween experimental
between results (extracted
experimental from Zhu and
results (extracted Chao
from Zhu[29])
and and simula-
Chao [29]) and s
2.5. for
tions Discretisation
lations welding
for welding Test
process. Simulation
process. in lines, in
Simulation experimental data in dots.data in dots.
lines, experimental
A discretisation
2.5. Discretisation Test test was conducted to determine the number of elements neede
2.5. Discretisation
attain
A discretisation
Test
model independence with respect
test was conducted to temporal
to determine andofspatial
the number elements discretisation.
needed to For
attain A discretisation
simulation,
model the number
independence testofwas
with conducted
elements
respect varied
to to from
temporaldetermine thediscretisation.
10spatial
and elementsnumber
per side (1 10 in
of elements
For this neede
tota
3 in total) to
simulation,
attain
200 permodel the 10 in total),
number of
side (8independence elements
withvaried
respect
while from
four to10 elements
temporal
temporal per side
andwere
steps (1 ×
spatial10discretisation.
considered: For
360 s, 120
200 per side 6 in total), while four temporal steps were considered: 360 s, 120 s, 60 s,
× 10number
s, and 30 s.(8Figure
simulation, the of elements
4 shows efficiencyvaried from 10 of
as a function elements
spatial per
andside (1 10
temporal in tota
discretisa
and 30 s. Figure 4 shows efficiency as a function of spatial and temporal discretisation. For
200
For per
temporal 10 in total),
side (8discretisation while
lower than four temporal
60 s, steps were
there is almost considered:
no difference,
temporal discretisation lower than 60 s, there is almost no difference, whilst for spatial
360 s,for
whilst 120
sp
s, and 30 s. Figure
discretisation,
discretisation, thethe 4 shows
elements
elements efficiency
quickly
quickly asabove
a function
converge
converge of50,000
spatial
aboveelements.
50,000 and temporal discretisa
elements.
For temporal discretisation lower than 60 s, there is almost no difference, whilst for sp
discretisation, the elements quickly converge above 50,000 elements.

Figure4.4.Discretisation
Figure Discretisationtest for
testbase
for case
basedescribed in Section
case described in3.Section 3.

Figure 4. Discretisation test for base case described in Section 3.

 3. Results
The results are presented separately for the charging and discharging processes. The
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 charging process is also used to select the proper material from several candidates. Then,
11 of 23
a coupled integrated analysis of the overall performance of the plant is presented in the
Discussion section.
3. Results
3.1. Charging Process
The results are presented separately for the charging and discharging processes. The
Theprocess
charging charging process
is also usedoftoone storage
select unit was
the proper tested
material using
from the candidates.
several conditions defined
Then, in
Table 1. One unit with a storage diameter 𝐷 = 4 m
a coupled integrated analysis of the overall performance of the plant is presented in temper-
and an initial homogeneous the
ature of 850
Discussion K was heated under a receiver with homogeneous radiation of 𝑞 =
section.
1 MW m while it was rotating at 2 rph (i.e., two revolutions per hour). The final situa-
3.1.
tionCharging Process
is presented in Figures 5 and 6, which show how the heat is spread inside the storage
unit.The
Thecharging
final position
process ofof
the receiver
one storageafter
unithalf
wasan hourusing
tested of heating (one rotation)
the conditions is shown
defined in
Table 1. One
in Figure unit with
5 with a storage
a black The 𝑅𝑆𝑆𝑅
circle.diameter =4m
Dstand 𝐸𝑅andarean initial homogeneous
selected tempera-to be
to allow the receiver
ture of 850 K wastheheated under a receiver with homogeneous radiation = areas).
of qcsrof 1 MWmFor −2
located inside storage and to avoid overlap (e.g., double heating this
while it was rotating at 2 rph (i.e., two revolutions per hour). The final situation
reason, the central axis and the mantle are the coldest regions. The centre is a useless re- is presented
in Figures
gion, 5 and
as the 6, which
rotating show how
system’s the heat
structure is spread
would insidethere,
be located the storage
whileunit. The final
the mantle region
position of the receiver after half an hour of heating (one rotation)
can work as a self-insulation area. In addition, the maximum local temperature is shown in Figure 5
is around
with a black circle. The RSSR and ER are selected to allow the receiver to be located
1600 K, which is lower than the melting point (i.e., 1800 K for cast steel). When this limit
inside the storage and to avoid overlap (e.g., double heating of areas). For this reason, the
is reached, a new unit can be located under the receiver while this unit stabilizes its tem-
central axis and the mantle are the coldest regions. The centre is a useless region, as the
peraturesystem’s
rotating throughstructure
conductive
would heatbetransfer.
located there, while the mantle region can work as a
self-insulation area. In addition, the maximum local temperature is around 1600 K, which
Table 1. Initial, geometrical, and operational conditions of the storage unit during the charging
is lower than the melting point (i.e., 1800 K for cast steel). When this limit is reached, a new
process.
unit can be located under the receiver while this unit stabilizes its temperature through
conductive heat transfer. Initial Conditions
Geometry Value Receiver Optics Value Value
and Discretization
Table 1. Initial, geometrical, and operational conditions of the storage unit during the charging process.
Storage Diameter, Quartz Transmittance
4.00 m 0.90 Initial Temp, 𝑇 850 𝐾
Geometry
𝐷
Value Receiver Optics
(Solar-weighted),
Value
𝜏Initial Conditions and Value
Eccentricity Ratio, Quartz Absorptance Discretization Ambient Temp,
1.22(−)
Quartz Transmittance (Solar-weighted), 𝛼 0.05 300 𝐾
Storage Diameter, Dst 𝐸𝑅
4.00 m 0.90 𝑇
Initial Temp, Tini 850 K
(Solar-weighted), τg
Quartz Absorptance Quartz Absorptance
Eccentricity Ratio, ER Receiver–Storage
1.22(−) 0.05 Ambient Temp,Solar
Tamb Inlet Heat,
300 K 1.0 𝑀𝑊𝑚
0.20(−)
(Solar-weighted), αg (Black-body- 0.35
Surface Ratio, 𝑅𝑆𝑅 𝑞
0.35 𝛼
Receiver–Storage Quartz Absorptance weighted),
0.20(−) Solar Inlet Heat, qcsr 1.0 MWm−2
Surface Ratio, RSR (Black-body-weighted), α g
Height-to-Diameter Quartz Reflectivity Charging time per
Height-to-Diameter 0.50(−)
Quartz Reflectivity Charging0.05time per s 1800𝑠
Ratio, HDR
0.50Ratio,
(−) 𝐻𝐷𝑅
(Solar-weighted), ρ g
0.05 𝜌
(Solar-weighted), storage unit, tstorage unit, 𝑡
1800
Storage and quartz Storage 0.80
and quartz Temp ∆t Discretiza-
Rotational speed, ωst 2.0 Rotational
rph speed, e𝜔 2.0 rph
emissivity, 0.80
Temp Discretization, 30 s 30 𝑠
emissivity, 𝜖 tion, Δ𝑡

Figure5.5.Detailed
Figure Detailedresult
resultfor
for
anan example
example case
case after
after half
half hour
hour of simulation.
of simulation. Upper
Upper viewview
for zfor
=H 𝑧 st=
𝐻 (upper surface); a black circumference shows the final position of
(upper surface); a black circumference shows the final position of receiver. receiver.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 12 of 23

Figure 6.6.Detailed
Figure Detailed result for an
result forexample case after
an example casehalf hour
after of simulation.
half Four different
hour of simulation. side
Four views side v
different
are shown. (a) 𝑦 = 0, (b) 𝑦 = 𝑥, (c) 𝑥 = 0, and (d) 𝑦 = −𝑥. In each case, vertical axis
are shown. (a) y = 0, (b) y = x, (c) x = 0, and (d) y = − x. In each case, vertical axis is height (z) and is heigh
horizontal axis is diameter.
and horizontal axis is diameter.
In this study, four materials were tested, and their efficiencies and stored energy
In this
densities werestudy, four
assessed. materials
Cast were ceramics,
steel, castable tested, and
solidtheir efficiencies
NaCl, andfire
and magnesia stored
bricksenergy d
sitieschosen
were were because
assessed.
theyCast steel, castable
are frequently proposedceramics, solid NaCl,
as solid sensible storage and magnesia
mediums in the fire br
were chosen because they are frequently proposed as solid sensible storage medium
literature [30,31]. Their thermodynamic properties are listed in Table 2.
the literature [30,31]. Their thermodynamic properties are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Materials Properties at 300 ◦ C. Sources indicated in each row.
Table 2. Materials Properties at 300°C. Sources indicated in each row.
Heat Thermal
Density
Conductivity
Capacity 
Material Ref. − Diff.

ρ kg·m−3
Density
−
Wm K 1 1
λ Conductivity Heat Capacity
α m2 s−1Thermal D

Material Ref. cp J kg−1 K−1
𝟏 𝟏)
𝝆 (𝐤𝐠 ⋅ 𝐦 𝟑)
𝝀 (𝐖𝐦 𝐊 𝟏 𝟏) 𝒄𝒑 ( 𝐉 𝐤𝐠 𝐊 𝜶(𝐦 𝐬 𝟐 𝟏
Cast steel [31] 7800 40.0 600 8.5 × 10−6
Cast steel
Castable ceramic [31]
[31] 7800 3500 40.0 1.4 600
866 4.5 × 10−7 8.5 10
Castable ceramic [31]
[31] 3500 1.4 5.0 866 1.4 × 10−6 4.5 10
Magnesia fire
3000 1150
bricks
Magnesia fire 3.8 × 10−6 1.4
NaCl [31] 3000
[31] 2160 5.0 7.0 850
1150 10
bricks
Quartz (cover) [32] 2200 1.7 1000 7.3 × 10−7
NaCl [31] 2160 7.0 850 3.8 10
Quartz (cover)
Figure 7 presents[32] 2200 for these four1.7
the results 7.3
1000 rotational speeds,
materials under different 10
while all geometric parameters were kept constant. The material with the highest efficiency
was cast steel, 7which
Figure can bethe
presents explained
resultsbyfor
its higher
thesethermal conductivity,
four materials whichdifferent
under enables rotati
the surface under the receiver to stay cooler since the heat is spread relatively faster. It
speeds, while all geometric parameters were kept constant. The material with the hig
was found that while the rotational speed has a positive effect on the efficiency, above
efficiency was provides
2 rph; this effect cast steel, which can
diminishing be explained
returns. by its
These results arehigher thermal
promising conductivity,
compared with w
enables the surface
thermal efficiency underreceivers,
for particle the receiver
which to stay over
operate cooler sincetemperature
a similar the heat isrange
spread
in relati
faster. It wasbut
the literature found that whileinthe
have efficiencies therotational speedforhas
range of 50–70% a positive
on-sun tests [7].effect on the efficie
above As 2cast steel
rph; thisis effect
the only materialdiminishing
provides to reach abovereturns.
70% efficiency, this material
These results was
are promising c
selected as the solid medium for use in the following analysis. Figures 5
pared with thermal efficiency for particle receivers, which operate over a similar tem and 6 present the
detailed results for cast steel at a speed of 2 rph. Whilst the efficiency and stored energy
ature range in the literature but have efficiencies in the range of 50–70% for on-sun
density are important, the storage unit must be able to deliver this energy towards the power
[7].
cycle; therefore, it is also necessary to analyse the behaviour of the discharging process.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 13 of 23
13

Figure7.7.Comparison
Figure Comparison between
between four different
four different materials.
materials. The rotational
The rotational speed (rph,speed (rph,per
revolutions revolution
hour)isisvaried,
hour) varied, efficiency
efficiency is shown
is shown inlines,
in solid solidand
lines, and
stored stored
energy energy
density density
in dashed in dashed lines.
lines.

3.2. Discharging Process

As cast steel is the only material to reach above 70% efficiency, this material wa
Table 3 presents the initial, geometrical, and operational conditions for a storage
lected
unit as the
during thesolid medium
discharging for use
process, in the
which mustfollowing
meet theanalysis. Figures
constraints 5 andcy-
of the sCO 6 presen
2
detailed results for cast steel at a speed of 2 rph. Whilst the efficiency
cle. The parameters for the temperature and flow constraints for a sCO2 Brayton cy-and stored en
density
cle are important,
wereobtained the storage unit
from Reyes-Belmonte et al.must
[33]. be able
The sCOto deliver thisdifference
2 temperature energy toward
is ∆T = cycle;
power therefore,
Tf o − T it 775
f i = (950 − is also necessary
) = 175 K and theto analyse the behaviour
thermal-to-power ofset
efficiency is theto dischar
ηprocess.
el = 0.50(−). To simplify the problem, a fixed mass flow rate of 10 kg s
−1 was defined,

and the storage size was set accordingly to the charging process defined in the preceding
3.2. Discharging
section; Process
the discharge process considered the operation mode discussed in the proposed
design description in the Introduction.
Table 3 presents the initial, geometrical, and operational conditions for a storage
during
Table the discharging
3. Initial, process,
geometrical, and which
operational must meet
conditions the constraints
of the receiver–storage ofduring
unit the sCO
the 2 cycle.
parameters
discharging for the temperature and flow constraints for a sCO2 Brayton cycle were
process.
tained from Reyes-Belmonte et al. [33]. The sCO2 temperature difference is Δ
Conditions Symbol Value Conditions Symbol Value
𝑇 − 𝑇 = (950 − 775) = 175 K and the thermal-to-power efficiency is set to 𝜂
HT block Initial
0.50(−). To simplify the
Pipes diameter D p problem,
0.05 ma fixed mass flow rate of T
temperature 10 kg s 1000
ini,HT was K defined,
the storage size was set accordingly to the charging
LT block Initial process defined in the preceding
Ratio non-use Rnu 0.10(−) Tini,LT 970 K
temperature
tion; the discharge process considered the operation mode discussed in the proposed
PH block Initial
sign
Fluiddescription
mass flow ratein the m 10 kg s−1
Introduction.
f Tini,PH 900 K
temperature
Inlet fluid temperature Tf i 775 K Outlet fluid temperature Tf o 950 K
Table 3. Initial, geometrical, and operational conditions of the receiver–storage unit during th
charging process.
Figure 8a–d show results for the discharging process at various times (0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
and 2.0Conditions
h). The temperatures of both the
Symbol storage cylinder and
Value the sCO2 flow were plotted
Conditions Symbol Val
as a function of storage height. At first, at 0.5 h, the LT cylinder discharged faster, which
Pipes diameter 𝐷 0.05 m HT block Initial temperature 𝑇 , 1000
happens because most of the flow circulates inside this unit. It is important to note that
Ratio non-use 𝑅 0.10(−) LT block Initial temperature 𝑇 , 970
in this configuration, the outlet temperature in each cylinder is the inlet temperature in
Fluid
the nextmass
one.flow 𝑚
ratethe process,
During the10
HT kgcylinder
s PH blocktemperature
output is higher than 𝑇what
Initial temperature , 900
Inlet fluid tempera-
is required (T f o = 950 K), 𝑇but the combined
775 K output
Outletisfluid
always constant and defined𝑇by
temperature 950
ture

Figure 8a–d show results for the discharging process at various times (0.5, 1.0
and 2.0 h). The temperatures of both the storage cylinder and the sCO2 flow were plo
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 14 of 23 14 of

required (𝑇 = 950 K), but the combined output is always constant and defined by Equa-
Equation
tion (19). Figure required
(19). Figure
9 presents (𝑇 the
9 presents=same
950 K),
the but the
same
process combined
process
over over
time. Theoutput
time. is always
The
average average constant
temperature temperatureand
(left) defined
and (left) by Equ
and
massmass
flow flow tion (19).
rate (right)
rate (right) Figure 9
of eachofcylinderpresents
each cylinder the
are alsoare same process
also plotted
plotted over time.
in the The
in the figures. The average
figures.
minimum temperature
The minimum
aver- (left) an
average mass
temperature
age temperature of any flow
of rate cylinder
any
cylinder (right) of determines
determines eachthe cylinder
initialtheareinitial
also plotted
temperature in charging
temperature
of the the figures.
of the The minimum ave
charging
process
process and theage temperature
stored energy of any
density cylinder
(through determines
Equation the initial
(26)).
and the stored energy density (through Equation (26)). In this example, the initial charging In temperature
this example, of the
the charging
initial proce
and the stored
is close energy
to 820 density
K for (through
PH and Equation
temperature is close to 820 K for PH and around 890 K and 960 K for LT and HT cylin-
charging temperature around (26)).
890 K In this
and example,
960 K for the
LT initial
and chargin
HT
ders,cylinders, temperature
respectively.
respectively. This means isThis
close to 820
thatmeans
the that
total K Δ𝑇for
thePH 180
totalandK∆T around
for≈the 890
180storage
K for K and
the 960 Kduring
storage
medium for LT and HT cylin
medium
during
the whole ders,
theprocess. respectively.
whole process.
Figure 9Figure This
(right)9shows means
(right)the that
shows the total
the evolution
evolution Δ𝑇
of the mass 180
of the K
flow for
mass the
rateflow storage
rate
in the HT medium
in the durin
HT
andand the
LT cylinders.
LT cylinders. whole
WithWith process.
this this Figure
strategy,
strategy, 9 (right)
it is itpossible
is possibleshows the
to provide
to provide evolution of
a constant
a constant the mass
output—both
output—both flow rate
in in in the H
and LT cylinders.
temperature and mass flow rate—for With
rate—for the this strategy,
the power
power cycle it is
cycle over possible
over aa long to provide
long period
periodof a constant
oftime,
time,even output—both
evenwith
with transient
transient temperature
temperature
temperature and mass
conditions
conditions in the flow
in therate—for
individual
individual thestorage
storage power cycle
units.
units. over a in
However,
However, longin period
order
order of time, eve
to find
with transient temperature conditions in the individual storage units.
to find
an an optimal
optimal design,design, it is necessary
it is necessary to considerto consider
both the both the charging
charging and discharging
and discharging processes in ord
However,
processes to find
in an integrated an optimal design, it is necessary to consider both the charging and dischargin
in an integrated model. model.
processes in an integrated model.

Figure 8. Detailed
Detailedresults
resultsofofthe
thedischarging
discharging process
processforfor
twotwo cylinders
cylindersandanda preheater usingusing
a preheater the the
Figure 8. Detailed resultsinof the discharging process for two cylinders and a preheater using th
mode “partial-series” strategy (discussed in Section 1) at different times. (a) 0.5 h, (b) 1.0 h, (c)h,1.5 h,
mode “partial-series” strategy (discussed Section 1) at different times. (a) 0.5 h, (b) 1.0 h, (c) 1.5
and (d) mode “partial-series” strategy (discussed in Section 1) at different times. (a) 0.5 h, (b) 1.0 h, (c) 1.5
and (d) 2.0
2.0 h.
h.For all
allfigures,
Forand figures,
(d) 2.0
the
h.themodules
For modules
all
are
figures,
label
arethe
as as
label HTHT
modules
= red
are
lines,
= red
label
LT =LTblue
lines,
as HT ==red lines,
blue and and
lines,
lines, LT
PH =PH
= blue
green= green
lines, and PH = gree
lines. The CO2 flow temperature is denoted with solid lines, and the average storage temperature is
lines. The CO2 flow temperature is temperature
denoted with is solid lines, and thelines,
average
andstorage temperature is
represented withlines.
dashed CO2 flow
Thelines. denoted with solid the average storage temperature
represented withrepresented
dashed lines.with dashed lines.

Figure 9. Average temperature profile (left) and mass flow rate (right) for three-cylinder discharge
Figure
process.9.HT (red Figure
Averagesolid 9. Average
temperature
line), temperature
profile
LT (blue dashed profile
(left)dots),
and and (left)
massPHflow and
ratemass flow
(right)
cylinders rate
for
(green (right) for three-cylinder
three-cylinder
dashed). discharge discharg
process. HT (redprocess. HT (red
solid line), soliddashed
LT (blue line), LTdots),
(blueand
dashed
PH dots), and (green
cylinders PH cylinders (green dashed).
dashed).
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 15 of 23

4. Discussion
In this section, a design process is discussed. The objective is to maximize both the
daily average generated energy and the specific energy density. The relationship between
the power block size and storage capacity is a key parameter in this regard. Clearly, an
increase in storage size would result in an increase in the discharge time and/or the power
block capacity. However, it is not possible to indefinitely increase the size of storage
cylinders in this design, nor is it possible for a beam-down receiver to increase the size of a
solar field beyond a certain area (e.g., the ~50 MWth limit for a BDR system defined by [10]).
The capacity of the power cycle is defined by the mass flow rate (at constant temperature),
while the size and number of storage units determine the storage capacity and required
solar field size.
The storage unit was assessed in the operation of a typical CST plant using a sCO2
Brayton power plant with the conditions defined in the previous section. To analyse
this in detail, multi-factorial simulations were run to obtain the performance parameters
of the coupled system. The variables considered are sCO2 mass flow rates (m f ) (from
the power block side), storage unit diameter (Dst ), height-to-diameter ratio (HDR), and
maximum storage average temperature (Tavmx ). The solar field size was determined by the
storage diameter and the receiver-storage surface ratio (RSSR) via Equations (21) and (27).
The number of storage units was set at three, working as indicated in Section 2.2. This
configuration represents the minimal system, but the simulations would be similar to the
situation in which additional storage units are incorporated until a nominal day (8 h) of
charging is achieved. Additionally, the maximum temperature allowed at any point in
the storage material is set to Tmax = 1800 K to stay below the melting point of cast steel.
It was assumed that before starting the charging or discharging processes, the cylinders
had been in a standby state long enough to reach thermal equilibrium. Table 4 shows the
different parameter values considered in simulations in which a total of 150 conditions
were simulated.

Table 4. Parameter values used in simulations.

Conditions Symbol Value Conditions Symbol Value

HT block initial
Pipes diameter Dp 0.05 m Tini,HT 1000 K
temperature
LT block initial
Ratio non-use Rnu 0.10(−) Tini,LT 970 K
temperature
PH block initial
Fluid mass flow rate mf 10 kg s−1 Tini,PH 900 K
temperature
Inlet fluid
Tf i 775 K Outlet fluid temperature Tf o 950 K
Temperature

The mass flow rate was limited to 100 kg s−1 because, with a higher mass flow rate,
the discharge time is considerably shorter than the charging time for any condition tested.
In addition, the maximum average temperature was limited to Tavmx = 1100 K because it is
not possible to charge the units to higher temperatures without surpassing the maximum
temperature limit of the material (recall ~1800 K for cast steel). The two main parameters of
interest are the energy released by the power block (Eel , see Equation (29)) and the stored
energy density (SED, see Equation (26)). The first one indicates the amount of energy
the system can deliver (and therefore sell), while the last one indicates the amount of
material required to store that energy (which is directly related to the capital cost of the
storage system).
It should be noted that not all the simulations produce useful results. For all the results
in which the discharge process did not occur (i.e., the storage unit was not able to deliver
the required output) or if it was too fast (less than 1 h), those results were filtered out. The
same was done when the charging process was longer than a nominal day (8 h) or the
discharge process was longer than a whole day (24 h). In addition, it was expected that
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 16 of 23

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

the discharging time would be longer or on the same order as the charging time, so only
the results with Rt > 0.75 were considered. These constraints reduced the simulation set
to 26 useful set
simulation alternatives, presented
to 26 useful in Figure
alternatives, 10, where
presented each point
in Figure represents
10, where a simulated
each point repre-
condition. The different
sents a simulated average
condition. The maximum temperatures
different average maximumare represented
temperatures byare
different
repre-
symbols,
sented bywhile the ellipses
different symbols, indicate conditions
while the ellipseswith the same
indicate storage
conditions diameter.
with the sameThestorage
other
two parameters (mass flow rate and HDH) are indicated in the labels. Due to
diameter. The other two parameters (mass flow rate and HDH) are indicated in the labels. the fact that
the
Duetested
to theconditions have
fact that the differences
tested in charging
conditions times, they
have differences inare best compared
charging in terms
times, they of
are best
the delivered
compared energyofover
in terms 8 h of available
the delivered energy charging
over 8 htime.
of available charging time.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Daily
Daily delivered
delivered energy
energy andand stored
storedenergy
energydensity
densityfor
forsuccessful
successfulsimulations.
simulations. Average
Average
storage temperatures indicated with different symbols, ellipses indicate diameters, HDR indicated
storage temperatures indicated with different symbols, ellipses indicate diameters, HDR indicated by
by colours
colours (dark
(dark for 0.25
for 0.25 andand
lightlight for 0.5),
for 0.5), andand mass
mass flowflow
raterate indicated
indicated withwith labels.
labels.

Broadly speaking, aa higher

Broadly higher 𝑇Tavmx allowsallows thethesystem
systemtotoreach
reachhigher
higher SED,
SED,butbutits its
in-
fluence on the total energy delivered is not clear. Nevertheless, for
influence on the total energy delivered is not clear. Nevertheless, for Tavmx = 1100 K, there𝑇 = 1100 K, there
were no
were no simulations
simulations with with delivery
delivery energy
energy above
above 17 17MWh;
MWh; therefore,
therefore, aa maximum
maximum storage
storage
temperature of
temperature 1050KKwas
of 1050 wasallowed.
allowed.The Thediameter
diameterhas hasaaclear
clearand
anddirect
directinfluence
influence on on the
the
delivered energy.
delivered energy.For Foraa4 4mmdiameter,
diameter, the the energy
energy delivered
delivered waswas around
around 5 MWh;
5 MWh; forfor
6 m,6𝑚,it
it was
was between 14 and14
between 16and
MWh.16 MWh
For 8. m,For 8 m , the
the energy energy
delivered rangeddelivered
from 25 ranged from
to 30 MWh;
25 to
for 1030 m,MWh
it varied 10 m, it varied
; for between 46 MWh.40No
40 andbetween and 46 MWh.simulations
successful No successful were simulations
obtained
for
weretheobtained for the 12
12 m diameter m diameter
units. This suggests
units. that
This 10 m units
suggests are10
that thembiggest
units aresize
theallowed.
biggest
The
size influence
allowed. The of HDH
influence of 𝐻𝐷𝐻
is related to the diameter.
is related Fordiameter.
to the small storage units storage
For small (4 m and 6 m),
units (4
both
m and short
6 m),(HDHboth=short0.25)(𝐻𝐷𝐻 = 0.25
and tall (HDH ) and = tall
0.50) units=work;
(𝐻𝐷𝐻 0.50) however,
units work; forhowever,
larger units for
(above 6 m),(above
larger units only short6 m),units
onlyare useful
short units(HDH = 0.25),
are useful (𝐻𝐷𝐻 = 0.25),
except in one caseinwith
except one low
case SED.
with
The
low reason
SED. The for reason
that is, for larger
that is,units, the charging
for larger units, the process
chargingcannot heatcannot
process up the heat
whole upunit
the
(i.e., the heat does not transfer via conduction to the bottom of the cylinder
whole unit (i.e., the heat does not transfer via conduction to the bottom of the cylinder fast fast enough).
Finally,
enough). the influence
Finally, of the power
the influence block
of the powersizeblock
(defined
size by mass flow
(defined rate)flow
by mass is not clear.
rate) is notA
larger
clear. Apower
larger block
powerwould
block deliver
wouldmore energy
deliver more but for a shorter
energy but for period
a shorterof time;
period therefore,
of time;
these two phenomena
therefore, compensatecompensate
these two phenomena each other. eachA plausible
other. A value for stored
plausible valueenergy density
for stored en-
is SED > 70 kWhm −3 Therefore, Table 5 presents the detailed results for simulations with
ergy density is 𝑆𝐸𝐷 >. 70 kWhm . Therefore, Table 5 presents the detailed results for sim-
ulations with 𝑆𝐸𝐷 > 70 kWhm and 𝐸 > 20 MWh. These results suggest that the solar
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 17 of 23

SED > 70 kWhm−3 and Eel > 20 MWh. These results suggest that the solar field size
is limited by the storage unit size rather than beam-down receiver optics (~5 MWth here
versus 50 MWth , as noted in previous works [10]).

Table 5. Summary of performance results for selected simulations.

Dst HDR Tstmx mCO2
Eel SED Vst
Rt Pel SM ASF

kg s−1 kWhm−3 m3 m2


(m) (-) (K) (MWh) (-) (MW) (-)
8 0.25 1000 25 27.9 76.83 301.2 1.39 2.5 1.93 10053.1
8 0.25 1050 5 28.1 81.99 301.2 7.02 5.0 9.65 10053.1
10 0.25 1000 50 44.0 82.82 588.3 1.10 0.5 1.51 15707.9
10 0.25 1050 10 44.2 81.00 588.3 5.52 1.0 7.54 15707.9
10 0.25 1000 50 45.9 113.65 588.3 1.15 5.0 1.51 15707.9

5. Conclusions
A novel concept of a dual receiver–storage unit for concentrated solar thermal plants
was presented. This idea uses the beam-down receiver to concentrate solar radiation
onto the proposed unit, which would be located on the ground. This concept allows
direct, the radiative heat of the solid storage medium, eliminating the need for a solar
loop with a liquid working fluid. While this does add some optical complexity, it reduces
the mechanical complexity of the tower while also reducing pumping parasitic losses
and exergy losses due to fewer heat exchanges. In addition, this work presents a clever
discharge strategy to ensure a constant input temperature and flow rate from this storage
system for a sCO2 power cycle. To achieve this, at least three storage modules were required
to work together in a ‘partial-series discharge’ mode.
A numerical model was built and validated that can simulate both charging and
discharging processes under different conditions. The charging process analysis showed
that high thermal conductivity is indispensable to spreading the concentrated radiation
quickly inside each storage unit. Therefore, among the proposed materials, cast steel was
selected since it achieved the highest charging efficiency (>70%).
The simulation of these storage units in a CSP plant indicated some constraints about
the expected size this configuration can have. Several conditions were tested, exploring
different storage sizes and power plant capacities.
 It was found that there was no viable
solution for plants above 5 MWe m f = 50 kg/s and storage units above 10 m in diameter.
However, the specific size would depend on the purpose of the plant since multiple smaller
towers could be combined into a common power block (as is done in other commercial
systems, such as the Vast Solar demonstration facility [34]). Thus, a single BDR receiver
could be envisioned to deliver up to a nominal 45.9 MWh of electricity (with up to 9 h of
storage), using 588 m3 of storage and 15.707 m2 of solar field to drive a 5 MWe power plant.
The size limitations found in this work show that BDR is suitable for modular power
generation. Additional research should be conducted to study other possible applications
where a modular design is also desired, such as industrial processes (SHIP), thermochemical
reactions, and desalination. Although the results shown here can be extrapolated to
other applications, a specific study for each case should be performed, specifically in the
discharge process, using a different HTF. Finally, additional work should be conducted
in experimental analysis to further the validation of the existing and techno-economic
analyses to optimise the solar field, beam-down optics, and power block sizes.
These conclusions, together with the ability of a sCO2 turbine to ramp quickly [35],
suggest that this kind of plant could work well as a small solar-peaking plant. The modular
nature of this concept could reduce investment risks and would allow multiple levels of
dispatch if modules were distributed to stabilise the grid or if they were co-located with
large solar PV installations.
 Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.S. and R.A.T.; methodology, D.S. and R.A.T
D.S.; validation, D.S.; formal analysis, D.S. and R.A.T.; data curation, D.S.; writing—or
preparation, D.S.; writing—review and editing, D.S. and R.A.T.; visualization, D.S.; s
R.A.T.; project administration, D.S. and R.A.T.; funding acquisition, D.S. All authors ha
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 18 of 23

Funding: This research was funded by ANID Chile (Chilean Scientific Agency)’s program
Doctorado Becas Chile 2018” (No. 72190387).
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.S. and R.A.T.; methodology, D.S. and R.A.T.; software,
Data Availability
D.S.; validation, Statement:
D.S.; formal The
analysis, D.S.coding used
and R.A.T.; dataincuration,
this research is available draft
D.S.; writing—original in a Github
preparation,
[36]. The dataD.S.;used
writing—review and can
in the Figure editing, D.S. and R.A.T.;
be reproduced visualization,
from D.S.; supervision,
these scripts.
R.A.T.; project administration, D.S. and R.A.T.; funding acquisition, D.S. All authors have read and
agreed to the
Conflicts ofpublished
Interest:version of the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding: This research was funded by ANID Chile (Chilean Scientific Agency)’s program “PFCHA:
Doctorado Becas
Appendix A.Chile 2018” (No. 72190387).
Identification of Storage Elements
Data Availability Statement: The coding used in this research is available in a Github repository [36].
The charging process is modelled using cartesian coordinate system,
The data used in the Figure can be reproduced from these scripts.
while
are cylindrical. Therefore, it is important to identify those elements that belong
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
age, those that are outside the storage domain, and those within the boundary.
The transverse
Appendix area
A. Identification of of the cylinder
Storage Elements is a circle, and each element is defined
tral point. Therefore,
The charging process it is possible
is modelled usingtocartesian
define coordinate
if a volume element
system, is completely
while the tanks
are cylindrical. Therefore, it is important to identify those elements
storage, completely out of storage, or if it is partially inside storage (i.e., that belong to the a bou
storage, those that are outside the storage domain, and those within the boundary.
ment) by assessing the number of element corners (𝑁 ) inside the storage circu
The transverse area of the cylinder is a circle, and each element is defined by its central
A function
point. is built
Therefore, to define
it is possible thisiffor
to define each element
a volume element: is completely inside the storage,
completely out of storage, or if it is partially inside storage (i.e., a boundary element) by
assessing the number of element corners (N 0.0 if 𝑁 = 0 (out storage)
c ) inside the storage circumference. A function
= 0.0 < 𝑓 < 1.0 if 1 ≤ 𝑁 ≤ 3 (boundary)
𝑓 element:
is built to define this for each

0.0
1.0if N = 0 (out if storage
𝑁 = 4) (full storage)
 c
f st = 0.0 < f st < 1.0 if 1 ≤ N c ≤ 3 (boundary) (A1)
For elements in 
the boundary, the fraction of each boundary (north, south
1.0 if Nc = 4 (full storage)
west) belonging to the storage unit is computed. These values are proportio
For elements
equivalent areainofthe boundary, the
conduction infraction of each boundary
each direction. (north, south, of
The percentage east, and
volume und
west) belonging to the storage unit is computed. These values are proportional to the
isequivalent
calculated approximating the circumference arc of the storage surface with t
area of conduction in each direction. The percentage of volume under storage
triangles,
is calculatedaccording to the
approximating thenumber of nodes
circumference arc of belonging to storage.
the storage surface A schematic o
with trapezes
cess is shown
or triangles, in Figure
according to theA1.
number of nodes belonging to storage. A schematic of this
process is shown in Figure A1.

A1.Examples
Figure A1.
Figure of elements
Examples and howand
of elements howf s function
function 𝑓 works.
works. Element A is completely
Element inside storage,
A is completely
and B and C have two and three corners inside storage, respectively. Element D has one corner inside
age, and B and C have two and three corners inside storage, respectively. Element D has
storage. The corners inside storage are solid dots. The grey area with segmented lines indicates
inside storage. The corners inside storage are solid dots. The grey area with segmented
the approximation used to the define fraction of volume. The common border between elements is
cates the approximation used to the define fraction of volume. The common border b
labelled in green.
ments is labelled in green.

In Figure A1, the element A has all its boundaries inside storage, then 𝑓
elements with one corner inside storage (Element D in Figure A1), the fraction
ume of D inside the storage is approximated by the triangle defined by the b
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 19 of 23

In Figure A1, the element A has all its boundaries inside storage, then f st,A = 1. For
elements with one corner inside storage (Element D in Figure A1), the fraction of the
volume of D inside the storage is approximated by the triangle defined by the boundaries
with elements C and D (bCD and bBD ), then for element D:

bCD bBD
f st,D = (A2)
2
For elements with two corners inside the boundary (element B), the storage fraction is
proportional to the trapeze defined by the sides (b AB , bBD , and the north boundary bBN ).

bBD + bBN
f st,B = (A3)
2
Note that b AB = 1, so it is not part of the calculation. Finally, for elements with three
corners, the fraction is calculated as the square minus the triangle that is not part of the
storage. Using Element C as an example:

(1 − bCS )(1 − bCD )

f st,C = 1 − (A4)
2
The elements outside the storage are considered perfect thermal insulators (λ = α = 0.0),
which ensure adiabatic conditions and numerical consistency. A similar function ( f r ) is
defined to determine which elements of the upper surface are under the receiver. The only
difference is that this function must be evaluated in each timestep because the storage is
rotating, and therefore, the elements under the receiver are changing.

Appendix B. General Description for Discharging Process Configurations

Two different discharge strategies were presented in Section 1: denominated stand-
alone operation and partial-series operation. However, an array of different strategies
could be proposed. Therefore, a general design was developed that allows testing for any
possible configuration. Later, some of the possibilities are analysed, and the best options
are selected. The two options selected are presented in the main text.
The general configuration between two tanks at different temperatures (low tempera-
ture and high temperature) is presented in Figure A2. The different states are indicated
with Arabic numbers, while the nodes with mass flow rate mixes are indicated with  Roman

numbers. In this configuration, it is assumed that the initial fluid temperature T f in , the
required outlet temperature (T f out ), and the overall mass flow rate (m f ) are known. There
are 9 states with unknown mass flow rates and temperatures (mi , Ti ), and the flows on
the tanks m f L and m f H are also unknown, comprising 20 unknown variables to be solved.
The mass conservation and energy conservation on each node and the storage units are
presented in Table A1.

Table A1. Mass conservation and Energy conservation equations for each node, LT tank and HT tank.

Node Mass Conservation Energy Conservation

(i ) m1 = m f L + m7 (A5) T1 m1 = m f L T f in + m7 T7 (A6)
(ii ) m3 = m f H + m8 + m9 (A7) T3 m3= m f H T f 
in + m8 T8 + m9 T9 (A8)
(iii ) m f = m6 + m4 − m9 (A9) T f out m f + m9 = m6 T6 + m4 T4 (A10)
(iv) m2 = m6 + m5 (A11) T2 = T5 (A12) T2 = T6 (A13)
(v) m5 = m7 + m8 (A14) T5 = T7 (A15) T5 = T8 (A16)
( LT ) m1 = m2 (A17) T2 = f sg ( TstL , m1 , T1 ) (A18)
( HT ) m3 = m4 (A19) T4 = f sg ( TstH , m3 , T3 ) (A20)
 the required outlet temperature (𝑇 ), and the overall mass flow rate (𝑚
There are 9 states with unknown mass flow rates and temperatures (𝑚 , 𝑇
on the tanks 𝑚 and 𝑚 are also unknown, comprising 20 unknown
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 solved. The mass conservation and energy conservation on each
20 of 23node a
units are presented in Table A1.

Figure General
A2. A2.
Figure configuration
General for discharge
configuration forprocess with two
discharge tanks. with
process The different states The
two tanks.
differe are
shown in red Arabic numbers, while the different nodes are shown in blue Roman numbers.
shown in red Arabic numbers, while the different nodes are shown in blue Roman
Equations (A18) and (A20) are the energy balance in the storage units described in
Section 2 and can be represented by a non-linear storage function, f sg . There are four
additional equations required, which come from four decisions needed to split the mass
flow rates. These decisions are expressed as ratios:
(a) Ratio among HT and LT mass flow rates:

mfH
RH−L = (A21)
mf

(b) Ratio between parallel and series operation:

m6
R p−s = (A22)
m2
(c) Ratio of LT tank recirculation:

m7
RrL = (A23)
m5
(d) Ratio of HT tank recirculation:

m9 m9
RrH = = (A24)
mf m6 + m4
The combinations of these four ratios allow to set the different operation modes and
solve the system to ensure the operation goal, which is to obtain constant mass flow rate
(m f ) and outlet temperature (T f out ) to the power system.
Six modes of operation were programmed and tested. Those more adequate to operate
and extract the most heat possible from the storage units were selected and presented in the
main text. The operation modes are depicted in Figure A3, followed by a brief explanation
of them.
• Operation Mode 0: One tank with recirculation. In this case, only one storage tank is
working. The outlet temperature is higher than the required one, so it operates with a
higher mass flow rate, and part of it is recirculated. While the tank is operating, its
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 21 of 23

temperature decreases, so over time a lower mass flow rate is required until it reaches
a point where the nominal sCO2 mass flow rate is reached, and no more heat can
be extracted from the unit without losing stable output. In this configuration, three
ratios are constant: R H − L = 1.0, RrL = 0.0, R p−s = 0.0; the stable output is reached
by modifying the ratio RrH . The system stops when RrH = 1.0. In other words, when
there is no more recirculation.
• Operation Mode 1: Two tanks in parallel without recirculation. This is a common par-
allel configuration. It requires that both tanks are in different temperatures. The
combination of both flows should give a stable output in mass and temperature.
In this configuration, R p−s = 1.0 and RrH = 0.0. RrL is not needed to be defined
( m5 = m7 = 0). The stable output is reached with the ratio R H − L . The process stops
when R H − L = 1.0.
• Operation Mode 2: Partial-series operation. In this case, all the flow goes through the
LT tank, but only a fraction goes through HT. The fraction that goes through HT is
calculated to ensure the required output. The fixed ratios are R H − L = 0.0, RrL = 0.0,
RrH = 0.0, and R p−s and vary to ensure a stable output. When R p−s = 0.0, the system
transposes to a full series mode and a new tank is required.
• Operation Mode 3: Series with recirculation in LT. In this case, the LT and HT tanks are
in a series, but recirculation is included in the LT tank to extract more energy from that
tank. The fixed ratios are R H − L = 0.0, R p−s = 0.0, RrH = 0.0, and the stable outputs
are reached by modifying RrL . When RrL = 0.0, it transposes to a full series mode;
the LT tank becomes the preheater, and a new tank is needed in order to keep the
desired output.
• Operation Mode 4: Series with recirculation in HT. This case is similar to the previous
one, but the recirculation is imposed on the HT tank instead of the LT. The fixed
ratios are R H − L = 0.0, R p−s = 0.0, RrL = 0.0, and the stable outputs are reached by
modifying RrH . Similar to the previous one, when RrH = 0.0, it transposes to a full
series mode, and a new tank is needed. Although this mode is implemented, it is clear
that this extracts more heat from the HT than the LT, which is not what is expected, as
the idea is to use most of the heat from the LT tank.
• Operation Mode 5: Stand-alone with bypass. This is an improvement to mode 0, with
only one tank in operation. Instead of recirculating flow in the tank, part of the flow is
bypassed and goes directly to the power cycle. The fraction that circulates in the tank
reaches a higher temperature, and the combined temperature and mass flow rate at
the end are stable. In this case, the ratios are similar to mode 0: R p−s = 1.0, RrL = 0.0,
RrH = 0.0, and the stable output is reached by modifying the ratio R H − L . The system
stops when RrH = 1.0, when there is no more bypass flow.
Initially, when all the tanks are fully charged, only those modes with one tank in
operation (modes 0 or 5) can operate. From those, mode 5 is more efficient and is used.
Then, when two tanks are required, mode 2 showed better results, as it extracts most of the
heat from LT, and it was selected. Once the first LT cannot be used anymore, it becomes a
pre-heater tank (PH), the HT becomes the new LT, and a new HT tank is required. This
detailed operation mode is explained in the main text.
 The system stops when 𝑅 = 1.0, when there is no more bypass flow.
Initially, when all the tanks are fully charged, only those modes with one tank in
operation (modes 0 or 5) can operate. From those, mode 5 is more efficient and is used.
Then, when two tanks are required, mode 2 showed better results, as it extracts most of
Energies 2023, 16, 4157 the heat from LT, and it was selected. Once the first LT cannot be used anymore, it becomes22 of 23
a pre-heater tank (PH), the HT becomes the new LT, and a new HT tank is required. This
detailed operation mode is explained in the main text.

FigureFigure A3. Different

A3. Different operation
operation modesmodes
tested.tested. Each can
Each mode modebe can be programmed
programmed by setting
by setting some ofsome
the of the
flows and nodes in the general configuration.
flows and nodes in the general configuration.

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