BCA 2 UNIT 3

Error Detection
There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc., which may help data to get corrupted during
transmission. The upper layers work on some generalized view of network architecture and are not aware of
actual hardware data processing.Hence, the upper layers expect error-free transmission between the systems.
Most of the applications would not function expectedly if they receive erroneous data. Applications such as
voice and video may not be that affected and with some errors they may still function well.
Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit streams) are transmitted
with certain level of accuracy. But to understand how errors is controlled, it is essential to know what types
of errors may occur.
Types of Errors
There may be three types of errors:
 Single bit error

In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

 Multiple bits error

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

 Burst error

Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:
 Error detection
 Error correction
Error Detection
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). In
both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to confirm that bits received at other end are same as
they were sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are considered corrupted.
Parity Check
One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s either even in case of even parity, or
odd in case of odd parity.
The sender while creating a frame counts the number of 1s in it. For example, if even parity is used and
number of 1s is even then one bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s remains even.If the number
of 1s is odd, to make it even a bit with value 1 is added.

The receiver simply counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is even and even parity is used, the
frame is considered to be not-corrupted and is accepted. If the count of 1s is odd and odd parity is used, the
frame is still not corrupted.
If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting the number of 1s. But when more than one
bits are erro neous, then it is very hard for the receiver to detect the error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique involves
binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials. The sender performs a
division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the
sender adds the remainder at the end of the actual bits. Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a
codeword. The sender transmits data bits as codewords.

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At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same CRC divisor. If the
remainder contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered as there some data
corruption occurred in transit.
Error Correction
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:
 Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it requests back
the sender to retransmit the data unit.
 Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data received, it executes
error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some kinds of errors.
The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where retransmitting is
not expensive. For example, fiber optics. But in case of wireless transmission retransmitting may cost too
much. In the latter case, Forward Error Correction is used.
To correct the error in data frame, the receiver must know exactly which bit in the frame is corrupted. To
locate the bit in error, redundant bits are used as parity bits for error detection.For example, we take ASCII
words (7 bits data), then there could be 8 kind of information we need: first seven bits to tell us which bit is
error and one more bit to tell that there is no error.
For m data bits, r redundant bits are used. r bits can provide 2r combinations of information. In m+r bit
codeword, there is possibility that the r bits themselves may get corrupted. So the number of r bits used must
inform about m+r bit locations plus no-error information, i.e. m+r+1.

Error control code

Error control coding is the coding procedure done to control the occurrences of errors. These techniques help
in Error Detection and Error Correction.
There are many different error correcting codes depending upon the mathematical principles applied to them.
But, historically, these codes have been classified into Linear block codes and Convolution codes.
Linear Block Codes
In the linear block codes, the parity bits and message bits have a linear combination, which means that the
resultant code word is the linear combination of any two code words.
Let us consider some blocks of data, which contains k bits in each block. These bits are mapped with the
blocks which has n bits in each block. Here n is greater than k. The transmitter adds redundant bits which
are n−kn−k bits. The ratio k/n is the code rate. It is denoted by r and the value of r is r < 1.
The n−kn−k bits added here, are parity bits. Parity bits help in error detection and error correction, and also
in locating the data. In the data being transmitted, the left most bits of the code word correspond to the
message bits, and the right most bits of the code word correspond to the parity bits.
Systematic Code
Any linear block code can be a systematic code, until it is altered. Hence, an unaltered block code is called as
a systematic code.
Following is the representation of the structure of code word, according to their allocation.

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If the message is not altered, then it is called as systematic code. It means, the encryption of the data should
not change the data.
Convolution Codes
So far, in the linear codes, we have discussed that systematic unaltered code is preferred. Here, the data of
total n bits if transmitted, k bits are message bits and n−kn−k bits are parity bits.
In the process of encoding, the parity bits are subtracted from the whole data and the message bits are
encoded. Now, the parity bits are again added and the whole data is again encoded.
The following figure quotes an example for blocks of data and stream of data, used for transmission of
information.

The whole process, stated above is tedious which has drawbacks. The allotment of buffer is a main problem
here, when the system is busy.
This drawback is cleared in convolution codes. Where the whole stream of data is assigned symbols and then
transmitted. As the data is a stream of bits, there is no need of buffer for storage.
Hamming Codes
The linearity property of the code word is that the sum of two code words is also a code word. Hamming
codes are the type of linear error correcting codes, which can detect up to two bit errors or they can correct
one bit errors without the detection of uncorrected errors.
While using the hamming codes, extra parity bits are used to identify a single bit error. To get from one-bit
pattern to the other, few bits are to be changed in the data. Such number of bits can be termed as Hamming
distance. If the parity has a distance of 2, one-bit flip can be detected. But this can't be corrected. Also, any
two bit flips cannot be detected.
However, Hamming code is a better procedure than the previously discussed ones in error detection and
correction.
BCH Codes
BCH codes are named after the inventors Bose, Chaudari and Hocquenghem. During the BCH code design,
there is control on the number of symbols to be corrected and hence multiple bit correction is possible. BCH
codes is a powerful technique in error correcting codes.
For any positive integers m ≥ 3 and t < 2m-1 there exists a BCH binary code. Following are the parameters of
such code.
Block length n = 2m-1
Number of parity-check digits n - k ≤ mt
Minimum distance dmin ≥ 2t + 1
This code can be called as t-error-correcting BCH code.
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Cyclic Codes
The cyclic property of code words is that any cyclic-shift of a code word is also a code word. Cyclic codes
follow this cyclic property.
For a linear code C, if every code word i.e., C = C1,C2,......CnC1,C2,......Cn from C has a cyclic right shift of
components, it becomes a code word. This shift of right is equal to n-1 cyclic left shifts. Hence, it is invariant
under any shift. So, the linear code C, as it is invariant under any shift, can be called as a Cyclic code.
Cyclic codes are used for error correction. They are mainly used to correct double errors and burst errors.
Hence, these are a few error correcting codes, which are to be detected at the receiver. These codes prevent
the errors from getting introduced and disturb the communication. They also prevent the signal from getting
tapped by unwanted receivers. There is a class of signaling techniques to achieve this, which are discussed in
the next chapter.

FLOW CONTROL
Flow Control
o It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit before the data overwhelms
the receiver.
o The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the data. Therefore, the receiving
device must be able to inform the sending device to stop the transmission temporarily before the limits
are reached.
o It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until they are processed.
Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:
o Stop-and-wait
o Sliding window
Stop-and-wait
o In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgement after every frame it sends.
o When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is sent. The process of alternately sending
and waiting of a frame continues until the sender transmits the EOT (End of transmission) frame.
Advantage of Stop-and-wait
The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged before the next frame is
sent.
Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait
Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the way to the receiver, and
an acknowledgement travels all the way before the next frame is sent. Each frame sent and received uses the
entire time needed to traverse the link.
Sliding Window
o The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can transmit the several frames
before getting an acknowledgement.
o In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after the another due to which capacity of
the communication channel can be utilized efficiently.
o A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
o Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver end.
o The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper limit on the number of frames
that can be transmitted before the acknowledgement.
o Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely filled.

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 o The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means that they are
numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are numbered from
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
o The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames can be sent before
acknowledgement.
o When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame that it wants to receive.
For example, to acknowledge the string of frames ending with frame number 4, the receiver will send
the ACK containing the number 5. When the sender sees the ACK with the number 5, it got to know
that the frames from 0 through 4 have been received.
Sender Window
o At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1 frames, and when they are sent
out, the left boundary moves inward shrinking the size of the window. For example, if the size of the
window is w if three frames are sent out, then the number of frames left out in the sender window is w-
3.
o Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the number which will be equal to the
number of frames acknowledged by ACK.
o For example, the size of the window is 7, and if frames 0 through 4 have been sent out and no
acknowledgement has arrived, then the sender window contains only two frames, i.e., 5 and 6. Now, if
ACK has arrived with a number 4 which means that 0 through 3 frames have arrived undamaged and
the sender window is expanded to include the next four frames. Therefore, the sender window contains
six frames (5,6,7,0,1,2).

Receiver Window
o At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n frames, but it contains n-1
spaces for frames.
o When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks.
o The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received, but it represents the number of
frames that can be received before an ACK is sent. For example, the size of the window is w, if three
frames are received then the number of spaces available in the window is (w-3).
o Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the number equal to the number
of frames acknowledged.
o Suppose the size of the window is 7 means that the receiver window contains seven spaces for seven
frames. If the one frame is received, then the receiver window shrinks and moving the boundary from
0 to 1. In this way, window shrinks one by one, so window now contains the six spaces. If frames from
0 through 4 have sent, then the window contains two spaces before an acknowledgement is sent.
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Routing algorithm
o In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the network layer must determine the
best route through which packets can be transmitted.
o Whether the network layer provides datagram service or virtual circuit service, the main job of the
network layer is to provide the best route. The routing protocol provides this job.
o The routing protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path from the source to the
destination. The best path is the path that has the "least-cost path" from source to the destination.
o Routing is the process of forwarding the packets from source to the destination but the best route to
send the packets is determined by the routing algorithm.
Classification of a Routing algorithm
The Routing algorithm is divided into two categories:
o Adaptive Routing algorithm
o Non-adaptive Routing algorithm

Adaptive Routing algorithm

o An adaptive routing algorithm is also known as dynamic routing algorithm.
o This algorithm makes the routing decisions based on the topology and network traffic.
o The main parameters related to this algorithm are hop count, distance and estimated transit time.
An adaptive routing algorithm can be classified into three parts:
o Centralized algorithm: It is also known as global routing algorithm as it computes the least-cost path
between source and destination by using complete and global knowledge about the network. This
algorithm takes the connectivity between the nodes and link cost as input, and this information is
obtained before actually performing any calculation. Link state algorithm is referred to as a
centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each link in the network.
o Isolation algorithm: It is an algorithm that obtains the routing information by using local information
rather than gathering information from other nodes.
o Distributed algorithm: It is also known as decentralized algorithm as it computes the least-cost path
between source and destination in an iterative and distributed manner. In the decentralized algorithm,
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 no node has the knowledge about the cost of all the network links. In the beginning, a node contains
the information only about its own directly attached links and through an iterative process of
calculation computes the least-cost path to the destination. A Distance vector algorithm is a
decentralized algorithm as it never knows the complete path from source to the destination, instead it
knows the direction through which the packet is to be forwarded along with the least cost path.
Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm
o Non Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static routing algorithm.
o When booting up the network, the routing information stores to the routers.
o Non Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing decision based on the network topology or
network traffic.
The Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm is of two types:
Flooding: In case of flooding, every incoming packet is sent to all the outgoing links except the one from it
has been reached. The disadvantage of flooding is that node may contain several copies of a particular packet.
1Random walks: In case of random walks, a packet sent by the node to one of its neighbors randomly. An
advantage of using random walks is that it uses the alternative routes very efficiently.
Differences b/w Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithm
Basis Of Adaptive Routing algorithm Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm
Comparison

Define Adaptive Routing algorithm is an The Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm is an

algorithm that constructs the routing algorithm that constructs the static table to
table based on the network conditions. determine which node to send the packet.

Usage Adaptive routing algorithm is used by The Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm is

dynamic routing. used by static routing.

Routing decision Routing decisions are made based on Routing decisions are the static tables.
topology and network traffic.

Categorization The types of adaptive routing The types of Non Adaptive routing
algorithm, are Centralized, isolation algorithm are flooding and random walks.
and distributed algorithm.

Complexity Adaptive Routing algorithms are more Non-Adaptive Routing algorithms are
complex. simple.

Shortest Path algorithm

In computer networks, the shortest path algorithms aim to find the optimal paths between the network nodes
so that routing cost is minimized. They are direct applications of the shortest path algorithms proposed in
graph theory.
Explanation
Consider that a network comprises of N vertices (nodes or network devices) that are connected by M edges
(transmission lines). Each edge is associated with a weight, representing the physical distance or the
transmission delay of the transmission line. The target of shortest path algorithms is to find a route between
any pair of vertices along the edges, so the sum of weights of edges is minimum. If the edges are of equal
weights, the shortest path algorithm aims to find a route having minimum number of hops.
Common Shortest Path Algorithms
Some common shortest path algorithms are −

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  Bellman Ford’s Algorithm
 Dijkstra’s Algorithm
 Floyd Warshall’s Algorithm
The following sections describes each of these algorithms.
Bellman Ford Algorithm
Input − A graph representing the network; and a source node, s
Output − Shortest path from s to all other nodes.
 Initialize distances from s to all nodes as infinite (∞); distance to itself as 0; an array dist[] of size |
V| (number of nodes) with all values as ∞ except dist[s].
 Calculate the shortest distances iteratively. Repeat |V|- 1 times for each node except s −
o Repeat for each edge connecting vertices u and v −
 If dist[v] > (dist[u] + weight of edge u-v), Then
 Update dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge u-v
 The array dist[] contains the shortest path from s to every other node.
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Input − A graph representing the network; and a source node, s
Output − A shortest path tree, spt[], with s as the root node.
Initializations −
 An array of distances dist[] of size |V| (number of nodes), where dist[s] = 0 and dist[u] = ∞ (infinite),
where u represents a node in the graph except s.
 An array, Q, containing all nodes in the graph. When the algorithm runs into completion, Q will
become empty.
 An empty set, S, to which the visited nodes will be added. When the algorithm runs into
completion, S will contain all the nodes in the graph.
 Repeat while Q is not empty −
o Remove from Q, the node, u having the smallest dist[u] and which is not in S. In the first run,
dist[s] is removed.
o Add u to S, marking u as visited.
o For each node v which is adjacent to u, update dist[v] as −
 If (dist[u] + weight of edge u-v) < dist[v], Then
 Update dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge u-v
 The array dist[] contains the shortest path from s to every other node.
Floyd Warshall Algorithm
Input − A cost adjacency matrix, adj[][], representing the paths between the nodes in the network.
Output − A shortest path cost matrix, cost[][], showing the shortest paths in terms of cost between each pair of
nodes in the graph.
 Populate cost[][] as follows:
o If adj[][] is empty Then cost[][] = ∞ (infinite)
o Else cost[][] = adj[][]
 N = |V|, where V represents the set of nodes in the network.
 Repeat for k = 1 to N −
o Repeat for i = 1 to N −
 Repeat for j = 1 to N −
 If cost[i][k] + cost[k][j] < cost[i][j], Then

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  Update cost[i][j] := cost[i][k] + cost[k][j]
 The matrix cost[][] contains the shortest cost from each node, i , to every other node, j.
Flooding
Flooding is a non-adaptive routing technique following this simple method: when a data packet arrives at a
router, it is sent to all the outgoing links except the one it has arrived on.
For example, let us consider the network in the figure, having six routers that are connected through
transmission lines.

Using flooding technique −

 An incoming packet to A, will be sent to B, C and D.
 B will send the packet to C and E.
 C will send the packet to B, D and F.
 D will send the packet to C and F.
 E will send the packet to F.
 F will send the packet to C and E.
Types of Flooding
Flooding may be of three types −
 Uncontrolled flooding − Here, each router unconditionally transmits the incoming data packets to all
its neighbours.
 Controlled flooding − They use some methods to control the transmission of packets to the
neighbouring nodes. The two popular algorithms for controlled flooding are Sequence Number
Controlled Flooding (SNCF) and Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF).
 Selective flooding − Here, the routers don't transmit the incoming packets only along those paths
which are heading towards approximately in the right direction, instead of every available paths.
Advantages of Flooding
 It is very simple to setup and implement, since a router may know only its neighbours.
 It is extremely robust. Even in case of malfunctioning of a large number routers, the packets find a
way to reach the destination.
 All nodes which are directly or indirectly connected are visited. So, there are no chances for any node
to be left out. This is a main criteria in case of broadcast messages.
 The shortest path is always chosen by flooding.
Limitations of Flooding
 Flooding tends to create an infinite number of duplicate data packets, unless some measures are
adopted to damp packet generation.
 It is wasteful if a single destination needs the packet, since it delivers the data packet to all nodes
irrespective of the destination.
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  The network may be clogged with unwanted and duplicate data packets. This may hamper delivery of
other data packets.

Distance Vector
The Distance-Vector routing algorithm is known by other names. Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the
Ford-Fulkerson algorithm are generally distributed after the researchers create it (Bellman 1957, and Ford and
Fulkerson, 1962).
Features
Following are the features of the distance vector routing are −
 The routers send the knowledge of the whole autonomous framework.
 Sharing of data takes place only with the neighbours.
 Sending of data holds place at constant, ordinary intervals, declared every 30 seconds.
In this algorithm, each router evaluates the distance between itself and every achievable destination. This is
accomplished by assessing the distance between a router and all of its immediate router neighbours and
adding each neighbouring routers computations for the distance between that neighbour and its close
neighbours.
Three keys to learn how this algorithm works are as follows −
Knowledge about the entire network
Each router sends its knowledge about the entire network. It communicates all of its connected knowledge
about the network to its neighbours.
Routing only to the neighbours
Each route repeatedly shares its knowledge about the network only to those routers with the explicit
connection. It transmits whatever knowledge it has about the complete network by all of its parts. This data is
taken and stored by each neighbouring router and can upgrade the routers own data about the network.

Information sharing at regular intervals

In distance vector routing, each router repeatedly sends its knowledge about the whole network with its
neighbours. For example, after 30 seconds, each router shares its data about its neighbour's entire network.
In this, the rectangular box represents LANs. The number inside each rectangular box is the LANs Network
ID. These LANs are linked by a router, described by the boxes such as A, B, C, D, E. The square boxes denote
the connection of the routers to their neighbours.
Routing table creation and updating
This table has three columns which contain the information about network id, cost & Next Hop. Let the
original tables for each router be.

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For router A
Network id Cost Next Hop

24 1 B

23 1 E

88 1 F

For router B
Network id Cost Next Hop

24 1 A

65 1 C

For router E
Network id Cost Next Hop

23 1 A

18 1 D

For router D
Network id Cost Next Hop

18 1 E

76 1 C

When A can send his packet or routing table information to B router, E & C directly.
Similarly, B can send routing table information to router A & C and so on.
When A receivers are routing tables from B, E & F, it can update its table. Similarly, B receives A and C
updates itself and so on, as shown in the new table.
New routing table for router A
Network id Cost Next Hop

23 1 E

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 Network id Cost Next Hop

24 1 B

88 1 F

23 2 D

38 2 C

New routing table for router B

Network id Cost Next Hop

13 2 A

24 1 A

28 1 C

35 2 C

38 2 C

Similarly, every router will update itself and so on. The updating algorithm checks that the router first adds
Hop to the Hop count field for each advertised route. The router should apply these rules.
 If the displayed destination is not in the routing table, the router must insert that displayed data into the
table.
 If the displayed destination is in the routing table, then two things can happen.
If the next-hop field is similar, the router must restore the table's entry with the displayed one.
If the next-hop field is not a similar
 If the displayed hop count is lesser than the one on the table, the router must restore the entry in the
table with the new one.
 If the displayed hop count is not lesser, the router must do nothing.

Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services

These are the two services given by the layers to layers above them. These services are:
1. Connection Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Services

Connection Oriented Services

There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service. These are:
1. Connection is established.
2. Information is sent.
3. Connection is released.
In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting the communication. When
connection is established, we send the message or the information and then we release the connection.
Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can send the message in
connection oriented service if there is an error at the receivers end. Example of connection oriented is TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.

Connection Less Services

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It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be carried. Each
message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of message sent can be different from
the order received.
In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without checking that
destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message. Authentication is not needed in this.
Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram Protocol) protocol.

Difference: Connection oriented and Connectionless service

1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed, while connectionless service does not need
any authentication.
2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is received or not and
sends again if an error occurs, while connectionless service protocol does not guarantees a message
delivery.
3. Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message based.

What are Service Primitives?

A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user process to access the
service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken by a peer entity.
If the protocol stack is located in the operating system, as it often is, the primitives are normally system calls.
These calls cause a trap to kernel mode, which then turns control of the machine over to the operating system
to send the necessary packets. The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service being
provided. The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from those of connection-less service.
There are five types of service primitives :
1. LISTEN : When a server is ready to accept an incoming connection it executes the LISTEN primitive.
It blocks waiting for an incoming connection.
2. CONNECT : It connects the server by establishing a connection. Response is awaited.
3. RECIEVE: Then the RECIEVE call blocks the server.
4. SEND : Then the client executes SEND primitive to transmit its request followed by the execution of
RECIEVE to get the reply. Send the message.
5. DISCONNECT : This primitive is used for terminating the connection. After this primitive one can't
send any message. When the client sends DISCONNECT packet then the server also sends the
DISCONNECT packet to acknowledge the client. When the server package is received by client then
the process is terminated.
6.
Connection Oriented Service Primitives

There are 5 types of primitives for Connection Oriented Service :

LISTEN Block waiting for an incoming connection

CONNECTION Establish a connection with a waiting peer

RECEIVE Block waiting for an incoming message

SEND Sending a message to the peer

DISCONNECT Terminate a connection

Connectionless Service Primitives

There are 4 types of primitives for Connectionless Oriented Service:

UNIDATA This primitive sends a packet of data

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FACILITY, REPORT Primitive for enquiring about the performance of the network, like delivery statistics.

Relationship of Services to Protocol

In this section we will learn about how services and protocols are related and why they are so important for
each other.
What are Services?
These are the operations that a layer can provide to the layer above it in the OSI Reference model. It defines
the operation and states a layer is ready to perform but it does not specify anything about the implementation
of these operations.

What are Protocols?

These are set of rules that govern the format and meaning of frames, messages or packets that are exchanged
between the server and client.

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