KAMPALA UNIVERSITY

GROUP COURSE WORK

COURSE UNIT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
GROUP MEMEBERS
1. KASIRYE DENIS 22/KUS/BCSIT/031U
2. BUYINZA MOSES 22/KUS/DCSIT/102U
3. NABBOSA PAITENCE 22/KUS/BCSIT/071U
LECTURER: MR TUSUBIRA FARO1AUQ
NO1 Discuss the operational functionality of a Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC)? (8mrks)

The CRC is a network method designed to detect errors in the data and information
transmitted over the network. This is performed by performing a binary solution on
the transmitted data at the sender’s side and verifying the same at the receiver’s
side.
The term CRC is used to describe this method because Check represents the “data
verification,” Redundancy refers to the “recheck method,” and Cyclic points to the
“algorithmic formula.
 CRC is performed both at the sender and the receiver side. CRC applies the CRC
Generator and CRC Checker at the sender and receiver sides, respectively.

The CRC is a complex algorithm derived from the CHECKSUM error detection

algorithm, using the MODULO algorithm as the basis of operation. It is based on
the value of polynomial coefficients in binary format for performing the
calculations. For Example: 

 x2+x+1 (polynomial equation)

 Converting to binary format etc.

Working of CRC Method

Sender Side (CRC Generator and Modulo Division):

1. The first step is to add the no. of zeroes to the data to be sent, calculated using k-
1 (k - is the bits obtained through the polynomial equation.)
2. Applying the Modulo Binary Division to the data bit by applying the XOR and
obtaining the remainder from the division
3. The last step is to append the remainder to the end of the data bit and share it
with the receiver.

Receiver Side (Checking for errors in the received data):

To check the error, perform the modulo division again and check whether the
remainder is 0 or not, 

1. If the remainder is 0, the data bit received is correct, without any errors.
2. If the remainder is not 0, the data received is corrupted during transmission.
Example - The data bit to be sent is [100100], and the polynomial equation is
[x3+x2+1].

Data bit - 100100

Divisor (k) - 1101 (Using the given polynomial)

Appending Zeros - (k-1) > (4-1) > 3

Dividend – 100100000

REF: Anmol Kapoor is a Research Analyst who aims to become a Data Scientist
one day. He enjoys Data Management systems and analysis. You will find him
reading a book when he is not working

https://www.simplilearn.com/tutorials/networking-tutorial/what-is-cyclic-
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NO1 (b)
Explain the difference between the single bit and the burst errors and suggest
an error technique that can be used to detect each of them
Single bit error: It means only one bit of data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from
0 to 1 as shown in fig.
Single bit error can happen in parallel transmission where all the data bits are
transmitted using separate wires. Single bit errors are the least likely type of error
in serial transmission
Burst Error: It means two or more bits in data unit are changed from 1 to 0 from
0 to 1 as shown in fig.

                  
In burst error, it is not necessary that only consecutive bits are changed. The
length of burst error is measured from first changed bit to last changed bit. As
shown in fig. length of burst error is 8, although some bits are unchanged in
between. Burst error is most likely to occur in a serial transmission. The noise
occurring for a longer duration affects multiple bits. The number of bits affected
depends on the data rate & duration of noise. For e.g. if data rate is 1 kbps, a noise
of 1/100 second can affect 10 bits.
DETECTION

Parity Checking
Parity bit means nothing but an additional bit added to the data at the transmitter
before transmitting the data. Before adding the parity bit, number of 1’s or zeros is
calculated in the data. Based on this calculation of data an extra bit is added to the
actual information / data. The addition of parity bit to the data will result in the
change of data string size.

This means if we have an 8 bit data, then after adding a parity bit to the data binary
string it will become a 9 bit binary data string.
Parity check is also called as “Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)”.

There is two types of parity bits in error detection, they are

 Even parity
 Odd parity

Even Parity
 If the data has even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data is 10000001 -
> parity bit 0
 Odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. Ex: data is 10010001 -> parity bit 1

Odd Parity
 If the data has odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data is 10011101 ->
parity bit 0
 Even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. Ex: data is 10010101 -> parity bit 1

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

A cyclic code is a linear (n, k) block code with the property that every cyclic shift
of a codeword results in another code word. Here k indicates the length of the
message at transmitter (the number of information bits). n is the total length of the
message after adding check bits. (actual data and the check bits). n, k is the number
of check bits.
The codes used for cyclic redundancy check there by error detection are known as
CRC codes (Cyclic redundancy check codes).Cyclic redundancy-check codes are
shortened cyclic codes. These types of codes are used for error detection and
encoding. They are easily implemented using shift-registers with feedback
connections. That is why they are widely used for error detection on digital
communication. CRC codes will provide effective and high level of protection.

 Longitudinal Redundancy Check

In longitudinal redundancy method, a BLOCK of bits are arranged in a table
format (in rows and columns) and we will calculate the parity bit for each column
separately. The set of these parity bits are also sent along with our original data
bits.

Longitudinal redundancy check is a bit by bit parity computation, as we calculate

the parity of each column individually.
This method can easily detect burst errors and single bit errors and it fails to detect
the 2 bit errors occurred in same vertical slice.

Check Sum
Checksums are similar to parity bits except, the number of bits in the sums is larger
than parity and the result is always constrained to be zero. That means if the
checksum is zero, error is detected. A checksum of a message is an arithmetic sum
of code words of certain length. The sum is stated by means of 1’s compliment and
stored or transferred as a code extension of actual code word. At receiver a new
checksum is calculated by receiving the bit sequence from transmitter.

The checksum method includes parity bits, check digits and longitudinal
redundancy check (LRC). For example, if we have to transfer and detect errors for
a long data sequence (also called as Data string) then we divide that into shorter
words and we can store the data with a word of same width. For each another
incoming bit we will add them to the already stored data. At every instance, the
newly added word is called “Checksum”.

c) Explain the term residue error rate as an error detection control technique

Is the ratio of the number of incorrectly received bits that are not detected as such,
over the total number of bits sent.

NO2) The internet is described as the “best effort network” explain the term best
effort networking

IP networks are often described as "best effort" networks. This refers to the
approach to service quality where the network itself does not actively differentiate
in its treatment of services that transit the network. In a best effort IP network all
IP packets are treated in the same fashion. The network undertakes its "best effort"
to deliver every packet as quickly as it can, but makes no undertaking to treat any
class of packets preferentially to any other. While this sounds like a perfectly
impartial and fair approach, it is often said of Internet networks that, for certain
applications, "best effort" simply isn't good enough. It is claimed that what IP
networks need is some way to provide a superior response to support certain
classes of applications in some special manner. "Better than best effort" is one way
of describing this form of quality of service.

ISP Column
Geoff Huston
September 2001

https://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2001-09/2001-09-best.html#:~:text=ISP
%20Column%0AGeoff%20Huston%0ASeptember%202001

No2 (b)

Identify and briefly describe the three qualities of service parameters that are often
measured to characterize the behavior of a network connection

 Jitter: Jitter in internet protocol networks means a variation in latency

of a data packet on a network band. This occurs due to network
congestion, timing drift, and changes in the route. Excess jitter in a
real-time video or voice communication network can be very
problematic. 
 Mean opinion score (MOS): As the name implies, it’s a score to rate
the quality of service experienced. The rating can be any figure from
one to five. A score of five indicates excellent quality of service. 
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the volume and maximum amount of
information transmitted over a network communication system at a
given time or over a while. Often measured in megabytes per second
 (Mbps), it should not be mistaken for speed. QoS aims to optimize
bandwidth by prioritizing and allocating resources to more time-delay
sensitive data packets.

The bandwidth of a given channel is 1600 Hz. if the signal-to-noise ratio is 20dB
what will be the maximum data rate of the channel in bits per second

Bandwidth equal to 1600 Hz, if s/n ratio is 20dB.

The maximum bit rate for a channel with a bandwidth of 1600 Hz and a signal-to-
noise ratio of 20 dB is 12800 bps (bits per second).
Given B = 1600 Hz
S/N = 20 dB
But 20 dB = 10 log (S/N)
S/N = 100
1600 Hz * log2 (1+20 dB) = 12800 bits/second.
The maximum bit rate for a channel with bandwidth of 1600 Hz and a signal-to-
noise ratio of 20 dB is 160 kbps.
The maximum bit rate:
 =     
        = 1600   
 = 20640 bits/sec
REF:
ishwaryam062001

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